CHAPTER 8: FRICTION where: µs=coefficient of statics friction

8.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY FRICTION ϕ s =coefficient of staticsfriction

 Friction is a force that resists the movement of two  Frictional force acts tangent to the contacting
contacting surfaces that slide relative to one surfaces in a direction opposed to the motion or
another. tendency for motion of one surface relative to
 Dry friction occurs between the contacting another.
surfaces of bodies when there is no lubricating  If one of the bodies is moving with a very low
fluid. velocity over the surface of another, Fk becomes
approximately equal to Fs, i.e., s≈ k.
 When slipping at the surface of contact is about to
occur, maximum static frictional force is equal to
normal force; Fk = sN.
 When slipping at the surface of contact is
occurring, the kinetic frictional force is
proportional to the normal force, such that Fk =
kN

8.2 TYPES OF FRICTION

 No Apparent Impending Motion.

 Impending Motion at All Points of Contact.
Impending motion
 Impending Motion at Some Points of Contact

8.3

WEDGES

8.4 FRICTIONAL FORCE ON FLAT BELT ANALYSIS

Frictional Analysis
 Since dθ is of infinitesimal size, sin(dθ/2) = dθ/2
and cos(dθ/2) = 1. Also, the product of the two
infinitesimals dT and dθ/2 may be neglected when
compared to infinitesimals of the first order. As a
result, these two equations become:
µdN=dT ∧dN =Tdθ
Eliminating dN yields:
dt
=µ
T dθ
 Integrating this equation between all the points of
contact that the belt makes with the drum, and
noting that T = T1 at θ = 0 and T = T2 at θ = , yields:
T2
dt ❑  If an area lies in the x–y plane and is bounded by
∫ T ∫d θ
=µ the curve y = f(x), then its centroid will be in this
T 0
1
plane and can be determined from the integrals.
ln T 2
=µ
T1
Solve for T2:
T2 = T1 e^ µ

CHAPTER 9: CENTER OF GRAVITY AND CENTROID

9.1 CENTER OF GRAVITY, CENTER OF MASS, AND THE

CENTROID OF A BODY
Centroid of Line
Center of Gravity
 If a line segment (or rod) lies within the x–y plane
 The weights of a body will form a parallel force
system, and the resultant of this system is the total
weight of the body, which passes through a single
point called the center of gravity, G.

Center of Mass of Body and Volume

 Locate the body’s center of mass Cm. This location

can be determined by substituting dW = g dm.

and it can be described by a thin curve y = f(x),

then its centroid is determined from
 The length of the differential element is given by
√
the Pythagorean theorem, dL = √ ( dx )2 +( dy)2,
which can also be written in the form:

dL=
√( dx) dx +
dx( )
dx 2 2 dy 2 2
dx

(√ ( ) )
2
 dy
¿ 1+ dx
Since g dx

√(
is constant we can cancel it out. If the body is
made from a homogeneous material, then its ¿ dL= )
dx 2 2 dy 2 2
dy
dy +
dy
dy( )
density ρ (rho) will be constant as well (dm = ρ dV).

(√ ( ) )
2
Substituting and canceling out ρ, we obtain dx
¿ 1+ dy
dy

9.2 COMPOSITE BODIES

 A composite body consists of a series of connected

“simpler” shaped bodies, which may be
rectangular, triangular, semicircular, etc.

formulas that locate the centroid C or geometric

center of the body.

Centroid of Area
of the length of the generating curve and the distance
 The center of gravity coincides with the centroid of traveled by the centroid of the curve in generating the
the body when it has constant density. surface area.
 The centroid for composite lines, areas, and
volumes can be found using relations analogous to
the previous equations; however, the W’s are
replaced by L’s, A’s, and V’s, respectively.
 While centroids for common shapes of lines, areas,
shells, and volumes are given.

Geometric Properties of Line and Area Element

 The second theorem of Pappus and Guldinus

Center of Gravity and Mass Moment of Inertia of states that the volume of a body of revolution
equals the product of the generating area and the
distance traveled by the centroid of the area in
generating the volume.

9.4 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the location (x̅, y̅) of the centroid of the wire.

The length of differential element dL is

¿ √ d x 2 +d y 2=¿ and its centroid is y̅ = y = x . Here,
2

dy/dx = 2x. Due to symmetry: x̅ = 0

❑ 2

Homogenous Solids ∫ y dL ∫ x 2 √ 1+ 4 x 2 dx
16.942
y= L
❑ = −22 = z=1.82 ft
9.294
9.3 THEOREMS OF PAPPUS AND GULDINUS ∫ dL ∫ √1+ 4 x 2 dx
L −2
 The first theorem of Pappus and Guldinus states that
the area of a surface of revolution equals the product
2. Locate the center of mass of the homogeneous rod dL=300 d θ x=cos θ y=sin θ
bent into the shape of a circular arc.

Answer:

2π
3

∫ 300 cos θ(300 dθ)

x=
∫ x dL = −2 π
3
=124 mm
∫ dL 2π
3

∫ ( 300 dθ )
−2 π
3

By symmetry: y̅ = 0

3. Locate the centroid (x̅, y̅) of the shaded area.

x̅=0

4. Locate the centroid x of the shaded area.

Answ: 5a/8
5. Locate the centroid x of the shaded area.

Answ: 1.08 in
CHAPTER 10: MOMENTS OF INTERTIA 10.4 MOMENTS OF INERTIA FOR COMPOSITE AREA
 The moment of inertia for the composite area
10.1 DEFINITION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA FOR AREAS about this axis equals the algebraic sum of the
moments of inertia of all its parts.
 A distributed load acts perpendicular to an area
Geometric Properties of Line and Area Elements
and its intensity varies linearly, the moment of the
loading about an axis will involve an integral of the
form ∫y2 dA. It is sometimes referred to as the
“second moment” of the area about an axis (the x
axis), but more often it is called the moment of
inertia of the area.

 By definition, the moments of inertia of a

differential area dA about the x and y axes are dIx =
y2 dA and dIy = x2 dA, respectively.

 Polar moment of Inertia is defined as dJo = r2 dA, 10.4 MOMENTS OF INERTIA FOR COMPOSITE AREA
where r is the perpendicular distance from the 1. Determine the radius of gyration kX of the
pole (z axis) to the element dA. For the entire area paraboloid. The density of the material is ρ = 5
the polar moment of inertia is: Mg/m3
❑
J o =∫ r 2 dA=I x + I y
A
(This relation between Jo and Ix + Iy is possible since
r2 = x2 + y2)
 Ix , Iy, and Jo will always be positive since they
involve the product of distance squared and area.
The units for moment of inertia involve length
raised to the fourth power, e.g., m4, mm4, or ft4,
in4.
Solution:
10.2 PARALLEL-AXIS THEOREM FOR AN AREA
 The moment of inertia for an area about an axis is
equal to its moment of inertia about a parallel axis
passing through the area’s centroid plus the
product of the area and the square of the
perpendicular distance between the axes.

10.3 RADIUS OF GYRATION OF AN AREA

 The radius of gyration of an area about an axis has
units of length and is a quantity that is often used
for the design of columns in structural mechanics.

dV = πy2 dx
dV = π(50x) dx =50π xdx ......eq (1)
dm=ρdV
dm = ρ(50πxdx) = 50πρx dx ...... eq(2)
200
m= ∫ dm
0

200
m= ∫ 50 πρx dx
0

200
¿ 50 πρ ∫ x dx
0

2. Determine the moment of inertia of the thin ring

[ ]
200
x2 about the z axis. The ring has a mass m.
¿ 50 πρ
2 0
Solution: 5. Determine the polar moment of inertia and radius
of gyration with respect to a polar centroidal axis
m=ρV
of the cross section of a hollow tube whose
m=ρ 2 πR
outside diameter is 6 in. and inside diameter is 4
m
ρ= in.
2 πR

[ ]
2π
m
I z =∫
2
R Rdθ
0 2 πR

∫[ ]
2π
m 2
R dθ
0 2π
2
mR 2π
¿
2π
2
¿mR
3. The right circular cone is formed by revolving the
shaded area around the x axis. Determine the
moment of inertia Ix and express the result in
terms of the total mass of the cone. The cone has a
constant density r. Answer: J =
102.10 in4

Kz =2.55
Solution:
in

4. Determine the area moment of inertia of the

shaded area about the x axis.

Answer: Ix = 0.1111 m4