CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF TRANSLATION

Definitions of “Translation”
The English term “Translation”, first attested in around 1340, derives from the Latin word
“translatus” which means “carried across” (Lewis, 2004, p.257).

Translation, by dictionary definition, means turning one‘s own language into another language
(The Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 1974).

In the field of Linguistics, “Translation” has several meanings:

It is a subject (môn dịch thuật). E.g.: I studied translation at university.
It is a product (bản dịch). E.g.: They published the Arabic translation of the report.
It is the process of producing the translation (dịch thuật). E.g.: translation service.

In the field of Translation studies, there are different definitions:

Translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the
source language message, first in terms of meaning and, second in terms of style.
(Nida & Tiber, 1969)
Translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically
equivalent text in the target language. (House, 1982)
Translation is a craft consisting of the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in
one language by the same message and/or statement in another language. (Peter Newmark, 1998)
Translation is to be understood as the process whereby a message expressed in a specific source
language is linguistically transformed in order to be understood by readers of the target language.
(Houbert, 1998)

→ As implied in the definitions above, translation in its overall meaning is basically a change of
form to reproduce in the receptor language the closest natural meaning of the source language
message. Only the form changes but the meaning stays the same. Moreover, translation not only
involves understanding the general meaning of the communication but calls upon the ability to
understand the pragmatic elements/culture of the communication as well.

3
Task 1: Work in groups and fill in the blanks with appropriate phrases given.
source language, cultural barriers, communicate interculturally, target language,
rendering, oral transfer, message receiver cultural barriers
a. Translation is the process of conveying messages across linguistic and ............... (Ian Tudor, 1987)
b. Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (.................................) by
equivalent textual material in another language (.................................) (Catford, 2000)
c. Translation is ................................ the meaning of a text into into another language in the way that
the author intended the text. (Newmark, 1998)
d. Interpreting is the ................................... of messages between speakers of different languages.
(Gentile et al,1996)
e. To interpret is to ................................. with the message sender and the .......................................
whose languages and cultures are unknown to each other. (Nguyễn Quốc Hùng, 2010)

Scope of Translation – Science, art and skill

First, translation means more than substitution of words in one language with those from
another language. It is a scientific attempt to bring two cultures together since languages differ from
each other not just in grammatical structure but also the way in which they conceptualize abstractions.
The question of how to bridge these gaps is decided by the aim of the translators and the receivers,
requiring scientific methodology to bring about the most productive outcomes.
Second, translators
a. must be able to cope with the elegancy of expressions and language
b. have to artistically preserve and fit into a different linguistic and social contexts: neutral and
emotional words, archaic words and new coinages, metaphors and similes, foreign borrowings,
dialectal, jargon and slang expressions, stilted phrases and obscenities, proverbs and quotations,
illiterate or inaccurate speech, and so on.
c. have to sensitively tackle complicated specialized descriptions and terminology in specific fields
of study for which appropriate terms have not yet been invented.
Lastly, translation is the bridge into the world of academic, scientific and technical knowledge.
Today most of the scientific and technical literature is written in different languages. Both translation
and interpretation of such works into other languages become even more of a challenge and require
superior language ability in at least two languages. A scientific article in medicine, for example,
cannot be translated only by somebody who has proficiency in two languages as well as at least a

4
working knowledge of medicine. Therefore, terms and words have to be chosen carefully for both
major and non-major receivers.
To sum up, it can be said that translation is a combination of science, art, and skill. It is a
science in the sense that it necessitates complete knowledge of the structure and make-up of the two
languages concerned. It is an art since it requires artistic talent to reconstruct the original text in the
form of a product that is presentable to the reader who is not supposed to be familiar with the original.
It is also a skill because it entails the ability to smooth over any difficulty in the translation, and the
ability to provide the translation of something that has no equal in the target language. As a result,
translation plays a very important part in the formation and shaping of any literature or culture, being
a window to the world, helping people to assimilate their sights and sounds while developing a culture
of their own.

Translation typology
The process of translation between two different languages involves the changing of an
original text (the source text or ST) in the original verbal language (the source language or SL) into a
written text (the target text or TT) in a different verbal language (the target language or TL):

Source text (ST) văn bản nguồn Target text (TT) văn bản đích
Source language (SL) ngôn ngữ nguồn Target language (TL) ngôn ngữ đích
E.g.: When a translator renders a book from English into Vietnamese, the SL is English and the TL is
Vietnamese.

- Source text-oriented translation (bản dịch thiên về bản gốc) means rendering the message that is
as close as possible to that of the source text. It can be a “copy” of the original and it clearly
reflects the structure, tone and linguistic structures of the source text.
- Target text oriented translation (bản dịch thiên về người đọc/người nghe) means conveying the
information contained by the source text to a target text so that is fully comprehensible to the
readers/listeners. This might be altering the original structure, merging two sentences into a single
one or even changing the style of the text.
One goal of an empirical translation theory is to establish a comprehensive translation
typology. There are many kinds of translation, some more typical and widespread than others, and we
need a system of classification both for theoretical and practical purposes. Many scholars have
different ways of classifications. Here are some prominent typology:

5
Jakobson’s semiotic classification
In his essay “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”, Jakobson (1896–1982) arrived at three
forms of translation:
1. Intralingual translation / Rewording / Paraphrasing is the transference of verbal signs by
means of other signs of the same language. It occurs when we produce a summary, rephrase or rewrite
a text in the same language.
E.g.: blockchain → a digital ledger that records transactions made in Bitcoin or another
cryptocurrency
2. Interlingual translation / Translation proper is the transference from one language into
another linguistic code. This has been the traditional focus of translation studies.
3. Intersemiotic translation /Transmutation is the transference of meaning from a verbal to a
non-verbal sign system. It occurs when a written text is translated into a different mode, such as music,
film or painting.
E.g.: The film Harry Potter was adapted from the same novel of J.K.Rowling.

Task 2: Choose the correct answer for each question.

1. ………… is the translation within the same language
A. Interlingual translation C. Intralingual translation
B. Intersemiotic translation D. Transmutation
2. Translation from one language to another is termed ………
A. Translation proper C. Intralingual translation
B. Intersemiotic translation D. Rewording
3. ……… is the conversion of text from one script to another.
A. Translation proper C. Intralingual translation
B. Intersemiotic translation D. Transmutation
4. The translation of ‘absolute monopoly” as “độc quyền tuyệt đối” is termed …………
A. Translation proper C. Intralingual translation
B. Intersemiotic Translation D. Transmutation
5. The translation of “déjà vu” as “the strange feeling that in some way you have already experienced
what is happening now, but in reality you haven’t” is termed …………
A. Translation proper C. Intralingual translation
B. Intersemiotic Translation D. Transmutation

6
6. The translation of “tổng sản phẩm quốc nội” as “Gross Domestic Product (GDP)” is termed ……..
A. Translation proper C. Intralingual translation
B. Intersemiotic Translation D. Transmutation
7. The adaptation of the book “Lords of the Ring” into movie is termed …………….
A. Interlingual translation C. Intralingual translation
B. Intersemiotic Translation D. Transmutation
8. Which of the following is an example of Transmutation?
A. “Monetary policy” is translated as “chính sách tiền tệ”.
B. “Accountability” is translated as “responsibility”.
C. “Accountability” is translated as “trách nhiệm (giải trình)”.
D. “x is more than y” is translated as “x > y”.
9. Which of the following is NOT an example of Transmutation?
A. “ΔABC = ΔDEF” is translated as “triangle ABC is congruent to triangle DEF”.
B. “∫f(x) dx” is translated as “a function whose derivative is f”
C. “2 + 7 = 9” is translated as “two plus seven equals nine”.
D. “A is a subset of B” means “A là tập hợp con của B”.
10. Which of the following is an example of Translation proper?
A. “Spear phishing” is translated as “the fraudulent act of sending emails ostensibly from a different
person's account in order to obtain confidential information”.
B. “Fixed cost” is translated as “chi phí cố định”
C. “Aesthetic” is translated as “relating to beauty or refined taste”.
D. “f(x) = x/2” means “f of x equals x divided by 2”.

Binary classifications
a) Semantic vs. Communicative translation
- Semantic translation gives highest priority to the meaning and form of the original, and is
appropriate to translations of source texts that have high status, such as religious texts, legal texts,
and ministerial speeches.
- Communicative translation is freer, and gives priority to the effectiveness of the message to be
communicated. These are texts like advertisements, tourist brochures, product descriptions and
instructions, manuals.

7
E.g.: I do myself the honor of calling her as soon as after my arrival in Hanoi.
 Semantic translation: Tôi cho phép mình vinh dự được thăm cô ấy ngay sau chuyến đáp đến Hà Nội.
 Communicative translation: Tôi ghé thăm nàng ngay khi tôi đến Hà Nội.

Task 3: Decide if the following translations are Semantic or Communicative.

1. I would like to make a few comments. → Tôi muốn bình luận đôi câu.
2. I have just returned from a visit to my landlord → Tôi vừa mới trở về từ chuyến ghé thăm người
chủ nhà của tôi.
3. I don’t want to talk to him whom I will be troubled with. → Mình chả muốn tôi chuyện với hắn
đâu dây dưa rề rà lắm.
4. Vấn đề nầy không thể giải quyết được.→ This problem cannot be solved.

Task 4: Translate these sentences semantically and communicatively.

1. Nhớ gửi thư cho mình nhé.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Hàng hóa nầy bán đắt như tôm tươi.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Oh my God! Oil price is rising again!
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. One day you’ll find someone who doesn’t care about your past because they want to be your future.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) Covert vs. Overt translation (House)
- Covert translation is a translation intended not to be recognized by target readers as
translations. In other words, it is so natural that they do not seem distinguishable from non-
translated texts of the same kind in the target language.
E.g.: The translations of advertisements and newspaper articles.
- Overt translation is a translation intended to be recognized as translations, because it is more
closely linked with the source culture.
E.g.: The translations of political speeches, songs, poems.

8
c) Documentary vs. Instrumental translation (Nord)
- Instrumental translation (dịch công cụ) is a translation which functions as an instrument of
communication. It works independently of a source text, and is judged on how well it expresses
its message. It is not to produce a maximally accurate representation of the original text.
E.g.: The translation of a refrigerator manual, the translation of “Cinderalla” for children.
- Documentary translation (dịch tư liệu) serves as a document of a source culture communication
between the author and the source text recipient. Since the translated version can be used as a
document or reference, it is required to be faithful to the original text.
E.g.: business contract, certificate, Donald Trump’s speech.

d) Written translation vs. Oral translation/Interpretation

- Written translation: is a kind of translation in which a translator studies written material in the
source language and reproduces it in written form in the target language.
- Interpretation: is a kind of translation in which an interpreter listens to a spoken message in the
source language and renders it orally in the target language.

Back translation
It means translating a word, phrase, or sentence multiple times between two languages until
both translations yield the same phrase. It has 3 steps:
- Translate from Language 1 to Language 2
- Translate from Language 2 to Language 1
- Repeat until all discrepancies have been fixed
Machine translation
Machine translation is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of
software to translate text or speech from one language to another.

Task 5: Choose some appropriate translation types for each kind of documents.
1. Legal documents: ...................................................................................................
2. A recipe ...................................................................................................
3. Laptop manual ...................................................................................................
4. Brochures ...................................................................................................
5. Inauguration speech of Obama..................................................................................................

9
Task 6: Match the words with the correct definitions.
A. Intralingual translation B. Interlingual translation C. Semantic translation
D. Intersemiotic translation E. Communicative translation F. Covert translation
G. Documentary translation H. Instrumental translation I. Overt translation
1. It is the transference of meaning from a verbal to a non-verbal sign system.
2. It is a translation intended not to be recognized by target readers as translations.
3. It is the transference of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language.
4. It gives priority to the effectiveness of the message, focusing on factors such as readability and
naturalness, and is appropriate to translations of “pragmatic” texts where the actual form of the
original is not closely bound to its intended meaning.
5. It is the transference from one language into another or reinterpretation of the message in another
linguistic code.
6. It functions as an instrument of communication, working independently of a source text, and is
judged on how well it expresses its message.
7. It gives highest priority to the meaning and form of the original, and is appropriate to translations
of source texts that have high status.
8. It is a translation intended to be recognized as translation, because it is more closely linked with
the source culture.
9. It is a bit like reported speech, presenting itself as a report of something else.

Task 7: Each word below depicts a characteristic of translation or interpretation. Put them into
the correct column.

fluency, write, dictionaries, speak, real-time, note-taking, business meeting, delayed, verbal,
accuracy, highly aesthetic, time pressure, legal contract, refinement, microphone

…………………………… ……………………………
…………………………… ……………………………
…………………………… ……………………………
…………………………… ……………………………
…………………………… ……………………………
…………………………… ……………………………

10
Codes of ethics
1. Accuracy and completeness: Translators/Interpreters have to select the
language that most accurately conveys the content and spirit of the clients’
message. They cannot not alter, make additions to, or omit anything that can
influence the accuracy of the message.
2. Confidentiality: Translators/Interpreters shall respect their clients’ right to privacy and
confidentiality. Confidential information shall not be disclosed without authorization.
3. Impartiality of non-egotism: Translators/Interpreters shall be impartial and unbiased, maintain
professional detachment and refrain from inappropriate self-promotion.
4. No conflict of interest: Translators/Interpreters shall disclose any conflict of interest.
5. Professional development: Translators/Interpreters shall maintain and improve their skills and
knowledge through professional training/education and interactions with colleagues and specialists in
related fields. Translators/Interpreters will refrain from accepting assignments beyond their
professional skills, language fluency, or level of training.

Task 8: Find solutions for each following situation.

a. You have provided a wrong translation of important information in a contract and this might cause
disastrous consequences. What code of ethics is violated?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
b. You have just found out that today you have to interpret for your love rival in a big conference.
You really don’t like him. Moreover, he is going with the girl you like. However, you still accept the
assignment. What code of ethics is violated?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
c. Your employer wants you to translate part of the Qu’ran Holy Book. In fact, you have little
knowledge and interest in Muslim. What code of ethics is violated?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
d. You have added some parts into the translation of a legal document and received some money for
this action. What code of ethics is violated?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................

11
Translation principles
An ideal translation should be:
1. Accurate (Tín): Reproducing as exactly as possible the meaning of the source text.
2. Beautiful (Nhã): Using natural forms in a way that is appropriate to the target language.
3. Communicative/Natural (Đạt): Expressing all aspects of source text in a way that is
understandable to the intended audience.

Task 9: Identify what principle is violated in the following translations.

1. Cấm người điều khiển các loại xe có mùi bia rượu. → It’s forbidden to drive car with alcoholic smell.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Sự thiếu vốn để tiến hành cạnh tranh dài hạn là nguyên nhân chủ yếu để dẫn đến sự sụp đổ của 80%
số công ty. → Cash flow problem for long-term competition is the main cause for the shutdown of
80% of all companies.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Tuyên dương công trạng của Ủy ban Thường vụ Quốc Hội. (Article heading). → Recognition for
achievements of National Assembly Standing Committee
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Người dân Huế vẫn giữ được phong cách tao nhã, vẻ dịu dàng và sự trầm lắng của đất thần kinh.
→ Hue native people still keep the refined manners, the gentleness and quietness of the crazy land.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Chúc quý khách thượng lộ bình an. => Wish you the upper road of peace!
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Justin Bieber re-stuck in a Nipplegate scandal (Article heading -Guardian). => Justine Bieber lại bị
dính chấu vào một vụ xì căng đan lộ hàng.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. It is estimated that profits will increase sharply next year. => Nó được ước tính rằng doanh thu sẽ
tăng mạnh năm tới.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. Cho trẻ em gặp khó khăn đặc biệt! => For extremely difficult children!
………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

12
Requirements for a professional translator/interpreter
Knowledge competence
Professional translators/interpreters must possess a wealth of general knowledge including:
- Subject/Domain knowledge - Contextual/Situational knowledge - Cultural knowledge
Linguistic competence
Linguistic proficiency means a fairly good command of the languages involved. Specifically,
it means acute reading and hearing, large vocabulary, precision and flexibility of expression, etc.
Constant exposure to different variety of English spoken and written texts is indisputably necessary.
Communication competence
Interpreters and translators must be skillful in using the right register for a given situation,
choosing the appropriate words to express different aspects of the same concepts, adopting suitable
non-verbal languages (intonation pitches, gestures, ..), recognizing intentional and unintentional
verbal language, as well as manipulating information mining, retrieval and management, etc.

Task 10: Choose the best answer for each question.

1. A translator should master a wide knowledge of nutrition and diseases if he has to translate in a
medical setting. What kind of criteria is it?
A. Knowledge competence B. Linguistic competence C. Interpreting competence
2. A translator misused the word “Negro” to indicate the Black people. What criteria did he violate?
A. Knowledge competence B. Linguistic competence C. Interpreting competence
3. An interpreter tries to add more information to the interpreting process, explaining what
mitochondria or metabolism is to a group ordinary listeners. What is the requirement of his
professional job and should he do it?
A. Knowledge competence – he shouldn’t do it C. Linguistic competence – he should do it
B. Translating competence – he should and has to do it
4. An interpreter is always speaking with monotonous voice and slow speed. What criteria of
interpretation did he violate?
A. Knowledge competence B. Linguistic competence C. Interpreting competence
5. Lý Lan translated Harry Potter by using extensively and beautifully a wide variety of Vietnamese
synonyms to explain fantasy world, such as “Tử thần thực tử” for “the Death Eaters”. What criteria
of translation did she master?
A. Knowledge competence B. Linguistic competence C. Interpreting competence

13
Further practice
Task 11: Find 2 examples for each translation issues.
1. Intralingual translation: …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Intersemiotic translation: …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Covert translation: …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Overt translation: …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Instrumental translation: …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Documentary translation: …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Task 12: Read the statements and decide if they are TRUE or FALSE.
1. If you have a good knowledge of two languages, you can translate well.
2. Translators cannot be replaced by computers.
3. Translators just need good dictionaries or reference documents.
4. Translation and interpreting are totally different.
5. I know Portuguese and Finnish, so I can translate those languages well.
6. Translation has existed longer than interpretation.
7. Semantic translation means rendering the message that is as close as possible to that of the target
text.
8. Translation means a change in form and meaning.
9. Translators/Interpreters don’t have to respect their clients’ right to privacy and confidentiality.
10. Criteria for a professional translator are knowledge competence and linguistic competence.
11. Translation is the process of conveying messages across linguistic barriers.
12. The adaptation of the book “Harry Potter” into movie is termed Translation proper.
13. Slogan is an example of covert translation.
14. Documentary translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as closely as possible to
that obtained on the readers of the original.

14