Gingoog Christian College

(Formerly: Gingoog Institute/Central Mindanao Christian School)

Affiliated with United Church of Christ in the Philippines
Gingoog City
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Member, Associate of Christian Schools, Colleges and Universities (ACSCU)
NOTES ON GENERAL ETHICS
Subject: VED 202 | Instructor Mr. Leovigildo Magalzo
Definition of Ethics 3. Life in society is only possible by practicing the
The science of Ethics is the answer to the moral principles regulating human relations.
questions pertaining to the end of men the meaning 4. The study of Ethics deserves a careful consideration
of life. The attainment of this end is closely bound to by individuals who are not familiar with the
man’s actions, and it is through Ethics that we learn teachings of Jesus Christ.
when and why our actions are good or bad, right or
wrong with regards to the ultimate end. Definition of an End of Man
Etymologically, Ethics is derived from the No man can be normal unless he has an aim
Greek word Ethos which means custom; or custom in life, proper to his nature. In fact, man without any
means ―a more or less permanent moral behaviour in good purpose is either permanently insane or in a
accordance with the precepts of the natural moral law state of desperation.
which is universally known and common to all men. An end is that towards which an action tends. It
Operationally, Ethics is defined as “the study is the terminus of an action and is the good that
of the moral behaviour or conduct of man as perfects some faculties. Therefore, any act, with
viewed from ultimate principles insofar as these knowledge of the mind and consent of the will,
principles are known by human reason.” Briefly, pursues an end which is good for the sensitive or for
Ethics is a ―philosophical, normative science dealing the rational appetite or for the whole human being.
with the morality of human acts.‖
Kinds of End
Material and Formal Object of Ethics 1. Proximate end which is an immediate end and on
The material object of ethics is human acts and account of which an action is immediately
its formal object is right conduct of man, the rectitude performed.
of his action. 2. Intermediate end which is subordinate and sought
for the attainment of another end.
Truths Presupposed in Ethics 3. Ultimate end which is that on account of which
A. The existence of God. God is the Creator of man and other ends or means are sought.
his lsat End, the Author of the natural and moral 4. Absolute last end is the end for the sake of which all
law, the Supreme Judge of all human actions, etc. other things are desired and which is not itself
B. The dignity of the human person, together with the desired for the sake of anything else.
duties and rights given to man to fulfil his destiny in 5. End of the action which is the intrinsic purpose of
the world. the action.
C. The immortality of the soul. The hope for eternal life 6. End of the agent which is the good or purpose that
and eternal rewards sustains man in his struggle an agent has in mind.
against evil.
Principles In Connection With The End of Human
Importance of Ethics Actions
1. Ethics’ importance is derived from the significance 1. Every agent that performs an action, acts for the
of its material and formal objects. sake of the end or purpose to be attained.
2. There is nothing more important to the individual 2. Every agent acts for an ultimate end.
person than the acquisition of the ultimate purpose 3. Every agent has the power of moving for an end
of life and the way it is shown in Ethics. which is suitable or good for him.
Definition of Good comprehension, which implies presence of the end; and
Good is that which satisfies the appetite, the delight or enjoyment implies repose of the lover in the
object of our striving, the thing which can confer object beloved.‖ – St. Thomas Aquinas
perfection and satisfaction to our powers or faculties.
Natural and Supernatural Purpose of Human Life
Kinds of Good The natural purpose of human life is to live
1. Real good which is something truly good in itself. in a way befitting his human nature. The
2. Apparent good is in itself a real evil but appears supernatural purpose of human life is to attain the
under the reality of good. eternal happiness of the soul after the death of the
3. Conditional good which is good under a certain body. To know, to live, and to serve God is our present
aspect. duty. To see God Himself, Uncreated Splendor face-to-
4. Simple good which is something perfect according face, to be united to Him by an unbroken and
to its nature. everlasting operation of the mind, shall be our eternal
5. Imperfect good which is something that satisfies destiny.
either the inferior appetites if man (as food, sensual
pleasures and all material things of this world) or The Human Acts
the superior powers i.e. the intellect and the will (as Human acts have three constituents, namely:
science, culture friendship) knowledge, freedom and voluntariness. Morality is
6. Perfect good which can satisfy human nature based on the freedom of the will and freedom
completely and perfectly to the highest degree and presupposes rational knowledge. As volition precedes
leaves nothing to be desired. Such good is God human actions, knowledge precedes volition.
himself, the ultimate and absolute last end and Therefore, a voluntary act is the human act which
happiness of man. proceeds from the will with some knowledge of the end
From the first to the last moment of our intended.
existence, life revolves around one desire—to be
happy. A. A human act must be knowing and deliberate act.
Knowledge is advertence of what the moral agent is
Definition of Happiness doing, thinking or willing. It means deliberation
Happiness is defined as “desire satisfied by about the means to perform an action and about
the conscious possession of the good.” Happiness is the end to be achieved.
a subjective condition by which a person feels in B. A human act must be free. Every human act is a free
himself the satisfaction of his desire and is conscious act for it is under the control of the will. Freedom is
of himself as possessing the good. It is a lasting the power to choose between two or more courses
condition, not a passing feeling or emotion. of action without being forced to take one or the
other by anything except our own will.
Kinds of Happiness C. A human act is a voluntary act. Voluntariness is a
1. Imperfect happiness such as can be had in this life, formal quality of human acts whereby any action or
external goods are necessary, not as belonging to omission results from a principle within the agent,
the essence of happiness, but serving as and from some knowledge which the agent
instruments to happiness which consists in an possesses of the end. A voluntary act is a will0act,
operation of virtue. not only a ―willed act.‖
2. Perfect happiness, consisting in the vision of God.
For perfect happiness, the intellect needs to reach Human Acts and Acts of Man
the very essence of the First Cause. The final Human acts are those which proceed from
perfection of the human intellect is the union with man as a rational being. Man is man by his intellect
God, who is the first principle both of the creation and by his rational will. These two faculties distinguish
of the soul and its instrument. man from the rest of the animals and makes him the
―Three things must concur in happiness: vision, most perfect being in this visible creation, for only man
which is perfect knowledge intelligible end; is intellective, moral, and religious. Only man is
responsible for his actions; he alone is aware of what suitable means towards the attainment of the
he is doing and is free to act or not to act. desired good or end.
Acts of man are actions which merely 4. Consent which is a definite decision as to what
happen in the body or through the body without means should be used. The will is finally attracted to
awareness of the mind or the control of the will; the results of the process of counselling.
these are not human acts but merely acts of man. 5. Choice or election by which the agent actively
commits himself to follow the last particular
Division of Human Acts judgement of the intellect. The will finally accepts
1. Elicited and commanded acts. by choice the particular means proposed in order to
a. Elicited acts are those produced directly by the get the desired good.
will; they begin and end in this faculty without 6. Command. The intellect points out and the will
transcending to other faculties, as the art of love, moves other executive powers of man, internal and
hate or desire. external, to act and get the intended object. To
b. Commanded acts are those which, although command is primarily an act of the intellect, but it
oriented in the rational will, are completed must be supported by or founded on a previous act
through other internal or external powers of man of the will, by virtue of which reason moves through
under the control of the will, as the act of command of the will to the command of the act.
thinking (internal), and the acts of walking, 7. Enjoyment or fruition, the actual attainment of the
talking, and writing (external). desired good. It seems to pertain to the love or the
i. Internal acts are performed by the internal delight which one possesses concerning the final
faculties of the soul, as acts of thinking and result that is looked for, which is the end.
loving.
ii. External acts are properly called actions and The Voluntary Act
are produced by different organs and senses A voluntary act is defined as the act which
of the body under the command of the will, proceeds from an intrinsic principle with
as the acts of studying, eating, etc. knowledge of the end. A voluntary act is different:
2. Good, bad and indifferent acts are acts which agree, A. from what is merely willed and cannot be controlled
disagree, or stand in no positive relation, by the will. As good or bad weather;
respectively, with the dictate of right reason or the B. from what is violent or artificial because these acts
rules of morality. are caused by some external agents; and
3. Natural and supernatural acts. These acts that C. from what is natural, because nature acts without
proceed from the natural powers of human nature knowledge of the end.
alone or from the supernatural aids given to man
such as the sacraments, grace, faith, etc. Classification of Voluntary Acts
4. Valid and invalid acts. The valid act possesses all the 1. Free or necessary, according as one can or cannot
moral requirements to produce proper classification abstain from it. The contemplation of God is a
and is very important in human contracts and necessary voluntary act for the blessed in heaven
transactions. since they look at Him knowingly and gladly and
cannot separate from that infinite being which
Seven Most Important Steps Which Complete The makes them blessed. Love of God on earth is a free
Human Acts voluntary act, since man can choose God and love
1. Volition which is a mere desire or inclination of the Him or turn away from God and hate Him.
will towards any good object known by the intellect. 2. Perfect voluntary act, is the act performed with
2. Intention which is the active desire for a particular complete knowledge and full consent. Otherwise, it
good after the intellect has convinced the will that is an imperfect voluntary act.
this particular good should be obtained through 3. Direct gangrenous voluntary or voluntary in itself, is
personal action. an act which is willed as an end in itself.
3. Deliberation or counsel which sets in motion a series  Example: A person drinks either because he likes
of thoughts and judgments concerning the most liquor or because wants to quarrel with
somebody.
4. Indirect voluntary or voluntary in its cause, is an act doctor’s ignorance of the immorality of abortion is a
which is desired not as an end in itself but a positive ignorance since a doctor should know his
foreseen effect or sequence of the act. professional ethics.
5. Explicit or expressed voluntary act, happens when
the consent to an action is externally manifested by Kinds of Ignorance
words or signs. The consent in a tacit voluntary act 1. Invincible ignorance, is that which cannot be
is given by silence (―Silence means consent.‖) overcome either because a doer realizes his own
 Example: The professor may answer: ―Yes‖ or nod state of ignorance, or because it is almost
at a student asking permission to go out. If the impossible for him to acquire the proper knowledge
professor says nothing, the student has tacit of the matter. If by no human effort can ignorance
consent. be dispelled, it is called physically invincible. If
6. Pure or simple voluntary act, is that which is willed ignorance cannot be overcome by ordinary
with full consent and without dislike. diligence and reasonable efforts, it is called morally
 Mixed or conditional voluntary results when the invincible ignorance.
act to be performed is willed under certain  First principle: Invincible ignorance makes an
conditions but at the same time is not likeable act involuntary.
under other conditions. 2. Vincible ignorance, is that which can be removed
o Example: The amputation of a gangrenous by ordinary efforts.
foot is an act willed by the patient, because  Second principle: Vincible ignorance does not
this is the only way to save his life. But under destroy, but it does lessen the , are not
ordinary conditions, nobody wants to have his clearly perceived and are not willed by the
foot amputated. person who does not possess direct and perfect
7. Actual, virtual, habitual, and interpretative voluntariness.
voluntaries or intentions. 3. Affected or pretend ignorance, occurs when a person
 Actual intention, is that which present ―here and positively wants to be ignorant in order to plead
now‖ before the mind while performing an innocent to a charge of guilt.
action.  Example: A student who does not want to read
o Example: When a student applies himself to the bulletin board, for he suspects that a
his studies because of an exam tomorrow. certain regulation posted there is opposed to
 Virtual intention, is that which was at some his plans.
former time and still influences the act which is  Third principle: Affected or pretend ignorance
now being performed. does not excuse the person from his bad actions;
 Habitual intention, is the retention in the on the contrary, it actually increases the malice.
unconscious mind of an intention made at some 4. In the legal sense, ignorance is divided into
former time and which, although actually ignorance of the law and ignorance of the fact.
forgotten, has never been retracted. It is different  Ignorance of the law is exemplified when a bar-
from a habit or custom. keeper sells liquor to minors because he is not
 Interpretative intention, is the result of aware that it is illegal to do so; and
interpreting the intention of one who is not  Ignorance of the fact might happen when the
present or of one who does not have the power bar-keeper sells liquor to a minor thinking he is
of judgement to make a decision by himself. an adult.
o Example: A child is supposed to consent to his
baptism if he could realize the importance of 2. Modifiers of Human Acts (Passions or
the sacrament. Concupiscence)
Passions are strong tendencies towards the
1. Modifiers of Human Acts (Ignorance) possession of something good or towards the
In Ethics, ignorance is the lack of knowledge avoidance of something evil. Passions also receive
which man should have of his moral life. A child’s other names such as emotions, affections, feelings,
ignorance of the lawyer’s duties is only a negative sentiments, desires although each name properly
ignorance for it is not absolutely involuntary. A connotes a different meaning.
Eleven Chief Passions responsibility, when they suddenly arise and impel
1. Love – is a tendency towards a desirable good, us to act before any control of the will is possible.
either present or absent. B. Second principle: Antecedent passions may not
2. Hatred – is the aversion for a sensible evil, either always destroy freedom for passions seldom escape
present or absent. the control of reason. Although men frequently act
3. Desire – is a tendency towards a sensible good that under the influence of one passion or another, still
is absent. they remain masters of their actions which are
4. Horror – is a turning away from a sensible evil that considered free and voluntary, responsible and
is absent or foreseeable in the future. imputable to them.
5. Delight – is a joy produced by the presence and C. Third Principle: Antecedent passions lessen freedom
possession of the desired good. and diminish the responsibility of human actions
6. Sadness – is a sorrowful experience produced by the because they tend to blind judgement of the
presence of evil. intellect and block the freedom of the will.
7. Hope – is the reaching out towards a future good D. Fourth Principle: Consequent passions do not lessen
whose attainment is possible. voluntariness but may increase it, because these
8. Despair – is the turning away from a good that is passions are deliberately excited and they are
impossible to attain. voluntary in themselves.
9. Bravery – is the courage to attack and evil that is
possible to conquer. Man frequently evades the control of his
10. Fear – is a state of anguish resulting from the reason and yields to his unreasonable desires under
thought that a threatening evil cannot be possibly the influence of momentous passions. Unless
overcome. constantly checked and controlled by reason, passions
11. Anger – is a state of displeasure excited by a feeling may cause nervous breakdowns, heart troubles, ulcers,
of having been insulted or by a desire to avenge. mental derangements, moral temptations, wrong
decisions and life-long mistakes.
Morality of Passions
A. Passion may b called good when ordered by the 3. Modifiers of Human Acts (Fear)
rational will to help man in the practice of virtue, or Fear is the disturbance of the mind caused
in the attainment of that which is morally good. by the thought of a threatening evil. Fear may be
 Ex: Sorrow for a friend’s death is good because it considered as a passion which arises as an impulsive
shows sympathy for the mourning family. movement of avoidance of a threatening evil,
B. Passion may be called band when used by the ordinarily accompanied by bodily disturbances. We
rational will to accomplish morally evil actions distinguish:
 Example: Making love to a girl with intention A. Act done with fear or in spite of fear as when a
other than marriage. person climbs a dangerous mountain at night. Fear
C. Passion may arise spontaneously before the previous in this case accompanies an act which in itself is
judgement of reason and before the will can control voluntary.
the psychological situation. This movement is called B. Acts done from or through fear, or because of fear as
antecedent passion because it arises before the will when a person threatened with a gun, yields his
can control it by calm deliberation. wallet to the thief.
D. Passion may be deliberately aroused by the will in C. Fear may be slight or grave according to the amount
order to ensure a more prompt and willing operation. or to the proximity of the impending evil.
This kind of passion is called consequent because it  Slight fear: danger of catching a cold when it
comes after the awareness of the mind and free drizzles; and
choice of the will.  Grave fear: danger of death or losing money.

Principles Governing The Morality of Passions Principles On The Effects of Fear On The
A. First principle: Antecedent passions may completely Voluntariness of Human Acts
destroy freedom and consequently, moral A. First principle: Acts done with fear are voluntary,
although they are not pleasant to the individual.
B. Second principle: Acts done from fear or through habit is acquired, it is difficult to rid oneself of it. They
fear are simply and absolutely voluntary for such greatly influence human voluntariness and freedom.
acts are performed with deliberation and are
chosen by the moral agent as the most convenient A. First principle: Habits do not destroy voluntariness,
alternative under the present circumstances. and actions performed by the ―force of habit‖ are
C. Third principle: Fear as a ―disturbance of the mind‖ imputable to man.
lessens voluntariness but does not destroy it. Fear B. Second principle: If a habit has been contracted
lessens the voluntariness inasmuch as more or less absolutely involuntarily and unintentionally, then
it hinders the freedom and the reasoning power of the existence of the habit and the acts which
man and it weakens the consent of the will. But it proceed unintentionally from the habit will lack
does not destroy voluntariness for there is always voluntariness and responsibility as long as the
present a deliberate choice of the will to escape person concerned remains ignorant of the existence
from the threatening evil. of such habit.
D. Fourth principle: Fear considered as an ordinary C. Third principle: If an evil habit has been contract
passion may increase or diminish the voluntariness voluntarily, but a positive and constant effort is
of the human acts according to the rules being made to counteract it, the acts inadvertently
established in the preceding actions. proceeding from the habit are considered
involuntary and not imputable to man because of
4. Modifiers of Human Acts (Violence) the lack of advertence and for his good intention
Violence or compulsion is the application of and efforts to break the habit.
external force on a person by another free agent
for the purpose of compelling him to do something Indirect Voluntary Act
against his will. Violence is different from fear which Indirect voluntary act or voluntary in cause
consists in a mental apprehension. Violence consists in is the act from which several effects may result
the actual application of physical force to extort such as the two cases of indirect voluntary acts:
something from a person. A. When from a good or indifferent action, one evil
No physical force or external agent can destroy effect directly and necessarily results.
the freedom and the intrinsic power of choice. No B. When from a good or indifferent action, two effects
matter how violently a person may be treated, his will result, one good and one evil. This is known as the
always remain free, for physical forces can never reach case of the double effect.
the intrinsic act of the will. Physical violence might
compel a person to do something but it can’t compel Principles Governing Indirect Voluntary Acts:
a person to will something. To say that an act is A. First indirect voluntary act: A person is held morally
voluntary and at the same time forced upon us, will be responsible for any evil effect which flows from the
a contradiction. action itself directly and necessarily as a natural
Principle governing violence: Physical actions consequence, though the evil effect is not directly
resulting from violence are voluntary by themselves. willed or intended.
They are performed by external faculties which suffer B. Second indirect voluntary act: A human act from
violence. Example: Communists may obtain which two effects may result, one good and one
confessions from tortured victims but they cannot evil, is morally permissible under four conditions. If
change their convictions and internal choice. As long any of these conditions is violated, the action is not
as the will does not give its consent, the actions of a justifiable and must not be done.
person suffering violence are not considered human 1. The action must be morally good in itself, or at
acts but merely ―acts of man.‖ least morally indifferent.
2. The good effect of the action must come before
5. Modifiers of Human Acts (Habits) the evil effect or at least be simultaneous with it.
A habit is a constant and easy way of doing Evil cannot be used as a means or factor in the
things acquired by the repetition of the same act. accomplishment of the good.
Habits form in a man like a second nature. Once a 3. The motive or intention prompting the action
must be directed towards the attainment of the
good effect; the evil effect is only permitted as decent living. It becomes bad if intended to
an incidental result. perform illegal or immoral operations.
4. The good effect must be more important or at B. An objectively good act may become morally evil.
least equally important as the evil effect. Example: When a person gives alms to a poor girl
with the intention of seducing her.
1. Source or Determinants of Morality of Human C. An objectively good act may receive more goodness.
Acts (Objects) Example: A person may give alms not only to help
Object. The basic factor of morality, the the poor but also for the love of God.
substance of the moral act. ―The object is not the D. An objectively evil act can never become good in
matter of which a thing is made of but the matter spite of the good motive. Example: To steal money
about which something is done; and it stands in with the intention of giving it to a charitable
relation to the act as the form, as it were, giving it the institution or to the poor.
species.
3. Source or Determinants of Morality of Human
Summary on the essence of morality which Acts (Circumstances)
centers on the object according to the teachings of St. Circumstances are conditions modifying
Thomas Aquinas. human actions, either by increasing or by
A. A good or moral action is a perfect action because diminishing the responsibility attending them.
it has fullness of being. The circumstances affecting the morality of our
B. An action has the fullness of being when it is in actions are:
accordance with its species, nature or essence. A. Who – is the subject or the person who does or
C. The nature of essence of an action is given by the receives the action. There are physical persons or
object about which the action is. The fundamental individuals and moral persons such as corporations,
goodness or badness of an action depends on the companies, institutions, business firms, etc.
object. B. Where – is the setting or place of action. A crime
D. An object is good when it is in conformity with committed in a church is more serious than a crime
reason, when it is suitable to reason. Consequently, perpetrated in a secluded spot because of flagrant
an action is good or moral when it is in conformity disregard of religion.
with reason which is the proximate norm of C. What – is the object intended as explained in
morality. Any action not in conformity with reason number one of this lesson.
is bad action. D. By what means – although man’s intention may be
morally good, if the means of attaining the end are
2. Source of Determinants of Morality of Human illicit or unlawful, his acts are immoral (―The end
Action (Motive) does not justify the means.‖
Motive is the purpose or intention that for E. Why – is the intention or the motive that moves the
the sake of which something is done. It is the agents to action.
reason behind our acting. Because the end or intention F. How – this circumstance involves different
is ordinarily present in all human acts, it becomes an conditions or modalities such as voluntariness,
integral part of morality. ―The end is the object of the consent, violence, fear, ignorance. Example: The
internal act of the will,‖ according to Aristotle. Before action was performed during ―a moment of rage‖,
we put the will and the external senses in motion, we ―in cold blood,‖ etc.
must have a motive present in the mind, or an object G. When – is the time of the action performed.
prompting our faculties to act and achieve the
proposed objectives. Principles On How Circumstances Affect Morality
The end or intention can modify human actions A. First principle: Circumstances may increase or
in four ways: diminish the goodness or badness of an action.
A. An indifferent act may become morally good or evil. Example: To steal a working animal from a poor
Example: To study medicine is in itself an indifferent farmer is a worse act than stealing it from a rich
action. It becomes good when inspired by the man.
thought of alleviating human suffering or making a
B. Second principle: Circumstances may change a good some favoured groups. Common good is described
or indifferent act into a punishable one. Example: A as the sum total of benefits derived by individuals
sentry sleeping at his post during wartime will be from the government and from the nation as a
sentenced by a military court to capital punishment. whole.
D. A law should be promulgated (officially published.)
A human act, in order to be morally good, must E. Laws are enacted by the competent authority of the
be perfect according to three elements: object, end, legislative body of the nation and finally apprived
and circumstance. ―Bonum ex integra causa; malum by the President or anyone who has the care of the
ex quocumque defectu‖ (The good results from whole community.
perfection; the evil from any defect.)
An act is moral when it is in conformity wuth Definitions of Eternal Law
the norms of morality which are human reasons or According to St. Augustine: Eternal law is the
conscience (proximate) and natural law (ultimate). An divine reason or the will of God commanding that the
act is non-moral or amoral when it has no relation to natural order of things be preserved and forbidding
morality, as walking or whistling. The term ―amoral‖ is that it be disturbed.
frequently applied to persons who lack the moral According St. Thomas: Eternal law is the
sense of responsibility, as infants and insane people. exemplar of divine wisdom as directing all actions and
Man alone is capable of morality. Man alone is movements. The whole universe is governed by Divine
a moral being because he is a rational and responsible Reason. God is the Prince of the Universe. The plan of
being. government He has in His mind bears the character of
a law, and because it is conceived in eternity and not
Importance of Morality in time, it is rightly called the Eternal Law.
Morality is necessary not only to preserve Eternal law is eternal and unchangeable as
our individual human dignity but also to preserve the author himself, God. It is absolutely universal
social life. Morality is the foundation of society and for it rules all things and actions, free, contingent
―the whole happiness of man and even his sanity or necessary.
depends on his moral condition.‖ If the citizens are
wild animals, the city would be a jungle. Definition of Natural Law
Natural law is man’s share in the Eternal Law
Law of God. Such participation is obviously manifested in
Definition of Law man through his reason. Says St. Thomas, ―that all
Law is an ordinance of reason directed things partake in some way in the eternal law, insofar,
towards the common good and promulgated by namely from its being imprinted on them, they derive
the one who has the care of the community (St. their respective inclinations to their proper acts and
Thomas Aquinas). ends.‖ The light of natural reason, whereby we discern
what is good and what is evil, which is a function of
A. A law is an ordinance or mandate because it the natural law, is nothing else that imprint on us of
contains a decisive command to perform or to the divine light. It is therefore, evident that the
avoid the performance of something. A law differs natural law is nothing else than the rational
from a plea or advice, for the latter does not creature’s participation of the eternal law.
demand obedience. Regulations are local The natural law is corollary of the eternal law. It
ordinances given to a group of individuals is an extension of the divine order of things as
according to the demands of particular apprehended by human reason. Man is born with a
circumstances. But the law is more or less natural disposition to follow the natural law. He is born
permanent and universal. with a natural facility to know the basic truths or
B. Reason should dictate the law. The despotic desire principles of the moral order as ―the good is to be
or momentary whim of an authority cannot become done and promoted and the evil is to be avoided.‖
a true law. The practical judgements by which man is
C. A just law takes into consideration the common aware of his moral obligations are the actual
good of all citizens and not the exclusive benefit of instruments by which God promulgates his eternal law
in men. Therefore the natural law can be described as be forbidden. It is therefore admitted that with regard
a disposition of the human mind to discover the moral to the fundamental and general moral principles of the
meaning of our actions in relation to the final end. natural law, knowledge is common to all men.
The natural laws are not written decrees; Under normal circumstances the general
figuratively speaking, they are written in the hearts of principles of the natural law can neither be forgotten
men. They are impressed in human nature by the nor banished from the mind of men although in
author of nature. particular cases, passions may prevent clear thinking
All persons inevitably recognize the existence and the understanding of them.
of moral order and by nature they are inclined to do With respect to the application of the general
what they recognize as good and to avoid what they principles to each situation of life, man’s ignorance is
recognize is evil. possible and is a common experience.

Properties of The Natural Law Dispensation and Interpretation of the Natural Law
1. Natural law is universal. The natural law is the A. The first principles and fundamental precepts of the
reflection or promulgation of the eternal law of God moral law cannot be changed for that would involve
in human nature, which common to all persons of contradiction in God. As long as God is God, He will
all times and places. be the object of worship. As long as man is man, he
2. Natural law is obligatory. It imposes upon men the will be forbidden to steal, murder or tell lies.
moral obligation to follow it as necessary condition B. God will not make a dispensation of the subject-
to attain the last end or happiness. matter of natural law in a strict sense for such
3. Natural law is recognizable. It cannot fail to be dispensation would be opposed to his divine mind
known and it cannot be forgotten by man; it is and to our human reason.
impressed in his person. C. God can grant dispensation of certain laws in the
4. Natural law is immutable or unchangeable. It shares face of great need. Example: Polygamy was
the immutability of the eternal law; human nature permitted to the Jews after the patriarchal era.
remains essentially the same, and God, the Author D. Additions to natural law as declarations or
of both human nature and natural law, wills that we applications can be made positive, divine positive
live according to our human nature. divine laws and by positive human laws.
E. Subtractions from the natural law can be made only
Contents of the Natural Law by God. He has delegated this power to any human
1. Fundamental moral principles in their general being.
application – ―Good is to be done and evil is to be
avoided.‖ Definitions of Conscience
2. General moral principles which sustain and preserve Conscience is an act of the practical
the basic relation of man to God, to himself and to judgement of reason deciding upon an individual
neighbors.‖ ―Adore God; Honor your father/mother.‖ action as good and to be performed or as evil and
3. Applications of the general principles of morality to to be avoided. It is the ―inner or little voice of God‖
specific situations. crying out man’s moral obligations and telling him
4. Remote conclusions derived by a process of what to do and what to avoid in the moral order.
reasoning – Those conclusions are not easily drawn
by ordinary people, for they involve education in Kinds of Conscience
theology and philosophy and deep reflection. Moral In regard to the act, the kinds of conscience
problems such as mercy killing, indissolubility of are:
marriage, contraceptive practices, duelling, etc., fall 1. Antecedent conscience precedes the act to be
into this category of remote conclusions. performed by commanding, forbidding,
counselling, or permitting the performance of an
Knowledge of The Natural Law act.
No man, unless he has lost his reason, would 2. Consequent conscience passes judgement on act
ever think that evil should be done and good should already performed by either approving or
disapproving the act performed.
Kinds of conscience in regard to conformity to conscience, does wrong.‖ Error in conscience is
the Moral Law: possible due to the following causes:
1. True, delicate, right, correct conscience – deduces A. A mistake along the process of practical reasoning
from true principles that an act is lawful or unlawful. especially with regard to remote conclusions of the
2. False, erroneous conscience – decides from false moral principles.
principles considered true that something is lawful B. Ignorance of the law
which is in fact, unlawful. False conscience is further C. Ignorance of the fact and other circumstances
classified into: modifying human actions
A. Scrupulous conscience – judges or rather fears D. Ignorance involving future consequences, especially
that an act is evil when in fact is it not (out of those dependent on the free will of others.
useless or groundless reasons) 2. Actions resulting from voluntary erroneous
B. Perplexed conscience – sees sin both in the conscience are immoral, as in the case of voluntary
performance and in the omission of some act. or affected ignorance. Actions resulting from
C. Lax conscience – judges on insufficient grounds involuntary erroneous conscience are not immoral,
that there is no violation or that the violation is for the error is not the fault of the agent.
not grave as it really is.
D. Hardened conscience – habitually judges all To act in bad faith means to perform an action
serious or at least some violations to be of little under an erroneous voluntary conscience, quite
importance. prevailing among men of lax morals.
E. Pharisaic conscience – minimizes serious
violations but magnifies matters of little 3. The solution to moral doubts has been one of the
importance. most discussed problems among moralists. In cases
Kinds of conscience in regard to the act of of doubtful conscience a person is obliged:
assent: A. To make an effort to remove all doubts by
1. Certain conscience – judges without any prudent direct investigation or consultations, thereby
fear of error. changing the doubtful conscience into a certain
2. Probable, doubtful conscience – judges that some subjective conscience. It is never lawful to act
act is only probably lawful or unlawful. with a doubtful conscience.
Guilty conscience means a subjective state B. Subjective certainty can also be achieved by
of remorse or dissatisfaction which follows a bad indirect practical reasoning, when the mind is
action. A guilty conscience is distributed conscience guided by a good intention or is trying to make
trying to restore good relations with God by means of a recommendation of the entire situation.
sorrow and repentance.
Education of Conscience
Obligatory Force of Conscience It is very important for man to educate his
The practical judgement of reason or conscience, for his eternal destiny depends mainly on
conscience binds man with a moral obligation. When the kind of conscience he himself develops into this
conscience is objectively correct and subjectively world. Here are the steps:
certain, obligation is clear and difficulties do not exist. 1. To educate our conscience is to overcome
ignorance and errors by applying ourselves to the
How Should The Moral Problem Be Solved? study of moral, civil and Church’s laws and
1. In general, man should follow the practical regulations.
judgement of his conscience whenever he sincerely, 2. The education of conscience is to overcome doubts
thoroughly, and certainly believes that he must in moral matters by forming good habits of
perform or omit an action, be this action good, bad reasoning or by consulting prudent and virtuous
or indifferent in itself. St. Thomas is explicit about persons.
this point: ―Every conscience, whether right or
erroneous, whether with regard to acts of evil in Peace of Soul and Guilty Conscience
themselves or acts which are indifferent, is There are two kinds of conscience: the one
obligatory, so that he who acts in opposition to his given to us by the Creator and the one we ourselves
create to provide for our unreasonable desires. The recognizes that this is the only way to achieve his last
first produces peace of soul; the second produces end or happiness.
remorse and disgusts, worry and anxiety. The greater the knowledge of his obligations,
Worries and conflicts and remorse are the greater the stimulus to perform his duties, to do
spontaneous protests of the soul that has deviated what is fitting to human nature and conducive to his
from the right way of God. They are danger signals last end.
and alarm sounds of our conscience. Peace of soul is
the outcome of honest living, obedience to the law, Existence of Sanctions
fulfilment of our duties; it is a feeling of friendship with Sanction is any motive, consideration, or
God; an anticipated heaven. ―Peace of soul is the promise which impels one to follow a moral
softest of all pillows‖ and the greatest happiness a obligation. Moral laws are given to free agents who
man can possess in this world. can obey or disobey them. In spite of their obligation
to act according to the law, many people break the
Moral Obligation and Sanctions law. In this situation the lawgiver has no alternative
other than to offer rewards to those who keep the law
Kinds of Obligation (Moral Obligation) and inflict punishment on those who break it. Those
Moral obligation is the necessity of performing should be enough motivation for intelligent, free and
or omitting an action in accordance with the moral or responsible people to exert obedience. A good act,
positive law as recognized by the mind. It is the therefore, is worthy of merit and reward. A bad act has
understanding of the law that prompts an individual to no merit; it deserves punishment.
perform an act or to refrain from it. As to the The merit or demerit, the rewards or
commands of the Natural Law, our obligations punishments are given to man for he alone is a free
immediately follow the order of reasons; it is through and moral agent, responsible people to exert
our reason that we judge the morality and immorality obedience. A good act, therefore, is worthy of merit
of our actions, the obligations of performing or and reward. A bad act has no merit; it deserves
omitting them. The actual obligation, the compelling punishment.
force, comes from God. When we say, ―man is responsible for his
Moral obligation is different from physical actions,‖ we mean that a person can answer or stand
obligation or necessity. Moral obligation means for his actions, as the author and liable subject of his
duty, oughtness. It presupposes the freedom to do actions. When we say, ―man’s actions are imputable to
an act or to omit it. Moral obligation are only applied him,‖ we mean that his actions are attributed, ascribed
to free beings. Man cannot always do what he wants to him as worthy of merit or demerit.
or what he thinks rebounds to his own interest which Sanctions can be considered as incentives to
sometimes is in conflict with the rights and interests of keep the law as deterrents from breaking the law.
others. Sanctions mean the actual rewards and punishments
applied to moral agents as determined by the
Kinds of Obligation (Physical Obligation) lawgiver. Sanctions commonly express punishments,
Physical obligation or necessity is a physical for human laws are not concerned with prize and
compulsion derived from physical laws which are rewards. The attainment of the last end through
inexorable because they require necessary fulfilment of the law is enough prize.
conformity to them.
Man is subject to both moral and physical Moral Necessity of Sanctions
obligations. His free and deliberate human acts are The use of sanctions is moral and necessary for:
regulated by moral laws. But other corporeal and a) the preservation of social order; and b) the
physical acts are regulated by physical laws. Man restoration of the moral order broken by offenders and
realizes that he must do good and avoid evil in order the indication of divine and human rights.
to attain harmony with reason, the last end, and true
happiness. The last end (God) is also the ultimate Punishments
source of his moral obligations. Man has the moral Punishments are physical pains or loss of
obligation of doing good and avoiding evil because he property inflicted upon convicted persons and
applied according to the discretion of the court.
Punishments are not essential characteristics of the law Divine Positive Law
but are merely used by civil authority to enforce the The divine positive law is promulgated by a
law and to promote peace and the well-being of the special command of God. Divine laws were to the
community. supernatural obedience, etc. Man’s ultimate end is not
Punishments have three effects: a) vindications natural but supernatural and only God can direct man
of the offense, b) reformation of the offender, and c) a towards his true identity by a positive legislation.
lesson for all. ―When the bad are punished, others The divine law cannot be replaced by human
become better.‖ law, for it is unique in two ways: a) only divine laws
regulate human inner acts i.e. intention of man and b)
Kinds of Sanctions only divine laws are able to punish all evil (committed
1. Positive sanctions – are provisions of the Criminal by men) and completely restore the moral order.
and Penal Law of different nations which deal with
the definition, trials, and punishment of crimes. Kinds of Positive Divine Laws
Most important punishments observed are: death 1. Natural laws – are given to men by God to remind
sentences, imprisonment, corrective training, fines. them of the natural moral laws which although
2. Natural sanctions – the evildoer is punished with knowable by human reason faded through
remorse or conscience, disquietude, dishonour and ignorance, passion, custom and bad example. A
anxiety which may result in mental or organic new enlightenment was necessary and God was
disturbances. The good man is rewarded with peace willing to transmit it to mankind through the Ten
of mind, contentment, honor, friendship, esteem Commandments written in two stone tablets given
and health as a result of practicing the moral values. to Moses in Mt. Sinai.
3. Imperfect sanctions – Natural sanctions applied in 2. The supernatural laws – lead men to the fullness of
this world are imperfection. The good people grace through Christ in order to achieve the
frequently suffer while evildoers prosper. supernatural destiny of man, i.e. the beatific vision.
4. Perfect sanctions – God, the wise Lawgiver, These laws concern sacraments, faith, hope, and
assigned sanctions to all natural laws as means to charity; the counsels of poverty, chastity, etc.
secure obedience to them. But these sanctions
cannot be adequately applied in this world, they Human Positive Laws
must take place in the life to come. Human positive laws are the laws which
Heaven and hell are not poetic inventions but proceed from a poorly constituted authority such
tremendous realities. Life in heaven will consist of the as the state or the church to serve as a supplement
eternal intuition or vision of God, the infinite source of to the provisions of the natural law in view of the
all truth and love, our Last End. Hell is the state of the Code of Civil Law. The laws of the church are
immortal spirits separated from God; a place of compiled in the Canon Law.
unspeakable punishments and torments for the
evildoers. Human Laws Are Necessary
1. Positive laws are official determinations and
The Positive Law applications of the natural moral principles which in
themselves are universal, broad and indeterminate.
Division of Laws Based On Promulgations According to St. Thomas: ―Every human law has just
A. Eternal – promulgation eternal as much of the nature of the law as it is derived
B. Temporal – promulgation in time from the law of nature. But if, at any point, it
C. Natural – promulgation through the light of reason departs form the law of nature, it is no longer a law
D. Positive – promulgation by fact or by sensible sign but a perversion of law.‖
E. Divine positive – the sensible sign comes from God 2. The society of good men must be protected against
F. Human positive – the sensible sign comes from some depraved members of the community, who
human authority under evil influence and lack of education, have
G. Ecclesiastical – the sign comes from the church perverted the natural judgment of their reason.
H. Civil – the sign comes from the state.
Decisive and expressed laws are needed to protect 2. Laws openly harmful to the material or spiritual
the good and to restrain the wicked by the threat of good of the community are unjust laws, and should
punishment. Legal sanctions are an addition to the not be obeyed.
natural law. They certainly are required to preserve 3. Laws are officially interpreted and enacted, and
society and the moral order. repealed, by the lawmakers themselves. Therefore,
3. Human laws are necessary to adjust the natural law it is not within the power of private individuals to
to an ever-changing society and to determine the determine whether a particular law is just or unjust,
manifold duties of men in relation to other private or whether it should be obeyed, enforced, or
individuals, to the government, and to the common repealed. Laws can be interpreted by expert lawyers
good. and jurists, but only decisions of the Supreme Court
of Justice are final and official. When a law has
Properties of Human Laws become an obstacle to the common good of the
1. St. Thomas assigned essential properties to the great majority of citizens, it has lost its moral
perfection of the human law: binding power.
A. A human law should be in accord with the
divine law. Penal Laws
B. A human law should be in accord with the Penal laws and regulations, according to
natural law. common estimate and practice do not bind, or in
C. A human law must promote the common good. conscience. However, convicted violators of these
D. A human law must have universal character. laws are bound to pay the fine, go to jail, give back
2. Human laws require external promulgation in an permits, or undergo other punishments provided
official publication. Laws are binding normally 30 by the Penal Code.
days following their official publication.
3. Offenses against the positive laws are limited to International Law
external actions. Punishments also involve external As civil laws result from the application of the
actions and material things. natural law to the needs of the citizens of a country,
4. Human laws should inculcate not only justice but so international laws result from the application of
also self-discipline and upright living under the the principles of the natural law to the needs of
providence of God who is the source and the end of maintaining friendly relations and mutual
the law. cooperation among all nations of the world.
5. Human laws are fallible and liable to error. International law should be accepted without
reservations and are binding in conscience. Nations
Moral Binding Power of Human Laws may also sign treaties, pacts, and alliances among
1. Since human laws are declarations and themselves for mutual economic cooperation or
determinations of the principles of the natural law military defence.
and since the natural law is derived from the The International Court of Justice and the
external law of God, it logically follows that man Permanent Court of Arbitration were established in
should obey human laws for the same reason that 1889 at The Hague in the Netherlands. They decide on
he obeys the divine law, temporal and eternal. conflicts and disputes among nations which are willing
 All citizens are morally bound to obey the laws to settle their contentions by peaceful means. The
enacted for their own material, social, and courts deal only with problems of international legal
spiritual welfare. For the purpose of human character and not with matters of domestic
laws is to promote the happiness of men, to jurisdictions.
enforce order, to defend the innocent, and to
restrain the evildoer. Laws of Nations or “Jus Gentlum”
 When we say that human laws binds man to The law of nations formed a collection of
conscience, we mean that obedience to human general and practical conclusions from the primary
laws implies a moral duty and that our acts of principles of natural law dealing with slavery, division
obedience or disobedience to the law will receive of private property, purchase and sales, obedience to
a final sanction from God.
the civil authority, etc. It is of Roman origin, the a person turns inordinately towards some created
created body of customary law ever produced and good but without forsaking God as his last end
came to be regarded as the compilation of the (small lies)
universal rules which all peoples might natural follow. B. Spiritual – pride; carnal – gluttony
C. Against God – despair; against neighbors –
Virtue: A Good Moral Habit defamation; against oneself – suicide
D. By commission – murder; by omission – failure to
Definition of Habit pay debts
A. Habit means a good or bad tendency acquired E. Sin by heart – hate; of the mouth – contumely; by
through repeated acts. Each time we perform an deed – theft.
action in the same direction, we find it easier F. By excess – adulation/flattery; by defect – contempt
because we have started to develop a habit. Habits
do not only complete and perfect the acting Virtue In General
potencies of man; they make man act with facility, Etymologically, “virtue” means manliness, i.e.
more easily and readily, persistently and with strength, courage. In general virtue is a kind of
complete coherence. disposition, ability or habit inclining man to think
B. Only man is capable of developing habits for he and to act correctly, to follow what is right, and to
alone acts freely. Other natural agents are avoid what is evil.
determined to act in one or another direction by St. Augustine’s classical definition of virtue:
instinct as animals, or by following the biological “Virtue is a good quality of the mind which one lives
and physical laws of nature. Habits are developed rightly, which no one uses badly and which God work in
from an inside principle, free and intelligent. Only us but without us.‖ The last part of this definition refers
man can mold his character, build himself up, to the supernatural virtues which are infused by God.
dispose of himself as the Latin word se habere, Thomistic doctrine of virtue can be summarized
actually suggests: to dispose oneself. in three propositions:
C. Habits can be developed in the sensible faculties of 1. Virtue is a good habit disposing potency or the
man, memory and imagination in the rational power power in which it resides to elicit a good act.
and especially in the will. Aristotle distinguishes 2. Virtue directs and completely fulfils the capacities of
between habits and disposition. A habit is relatively spiritual powers of man.
permanent and constant; disposition is transient. 3. Virtue is not only a good habit in itself but also a
D. Habits are necessary for the continuous practice of a productive habit of good action.
moral life. Through constant practice of the same
kind of work, man acquires efficiency and skill. Thomistic Definition of Virtue
Likewise, by repeatedly telling the truth, man ―Human virtue is a good habit of perfecting
acquires the habit of truthfulness; by repeatedly man in any of his rational potencies and inkling him to
using strong language, man acquires the habit of the right and perfect use of his potencies.‖
cursing, etc. Potency and act are related to the final
Moral habits are divided into virtues and vices. completion of the human act. But virtue orders
When habits incline man to do what is good, to act potency and act to the final perfection, the highest
according to his rational nature, they are called achievement of the human nature. It is through virtue
virtues. When habits dispose man to do what is that the whole being of man, his mind and his will, his
bad, they are called vices. intentions and desires and external acts are directed to
good and happiness. Virtue is the road to happiness.
Vice and Sin
Vice is a habit inclining to moral evil. Sin is a The Virtues of The Speculative Intellect Are:
bad human act which may either result from a vice or A. Understanding of the first principles. All men are
tend to form a vice. Among the various divisions of born with the disposition to know the self-evident
sins, we distinguish: principles which are like the pillars of our mental
A. Mortal sin – by which a person turns away from structure.
God, his last end (blasphemy); Venial sin – by which
B. Science. Which is a habit disposing man to draw pursuing a goal despite difficulties, patience is
true conclusions in any field of particular pursuing a goal in the face of sorrows, and
knowledge and from the first principles of that longanimity is pursuing a goal no matter how far away
science. its possible attainment is in time.
C. Wisdom. Which is the habit of understanding things
in the light of the highest principles. Philosophy is Kinds of Virtues
wisdom in the natural order. The knowledge of the A. Kinds of virtues according to spiritual faculties of
revelation is wisdom of the supernatural order. man:
1. Intellectual virtues (habits of mind):
The Virtues of Practical Intellect Are: a. understanding
A. Art – which is the habit of correctly knowing how to b. knowledge or science
perform some meaningful actions and how to make c. wisdom
useful and beautiful objects. d. art of technique
B. Prudence – which is essentially an intellectual habit e. prudence
concerned with the right direction of human 2. Moral or cardinal virtues (habits of the will)
actions. a. prudence
b. justice
Moral and Cardinal Virtues c. fortitude
Moral virtues are virtues in the proper d. temperance
sense, for they deal directly with the moral good and B. Kinds of virtues according to the manner of
not with the intellectual good. They direct the activity acquisition:
of the will and control the passions of the sensitive 1. Theological virtues (direct gifts of God to man):
appetite. a. Faith
Aristotle identified moral virtues with the b. Hope
―golden mean‖; i.e. with moderation in everything. c. Charity
Moderation neither too much (excess) nor too little 2. Human virtues (acquired through practice):
(deficiency), but just enough. Example: Deficiency of a. humility
courage is cowardice, excess of it is rashness, while the b. sincerity
right amount of it is fortitude. Carelessness in the use c. patience
of money is prodigality, the opposite is stinginess, d. loyalty
liberality being the golden mean. 3. Kinds of virtues according to motive for
The four most importance virtues are called practice:
cardinal virtues because like four hinges of a door, 1. Supernatural virtues (directed towards God):
they give access to the temple of human perfection. a. faith
They are the following: b. hope
A. Prudence – regulates the intellect itself c. charity
B. Justice – regulates the will with regard to the rights 2. Natural virtues (directed towards self, others,
of others perhaps towards God):
C. Fortitude – regulates the irascible appetite in the a. humility
face of danger b. sincerity
D. Temperance – regulates and controls the c. patience
concupiscible appetite or simple passions. d. loyalty
“There is human virtue for every species of human act.”
This statement means that there are as many virtues as Variety and Importance of Virtues
there are aspects of human conduct. Example: There are virtues disposing man to do the right
Industry, perseverance, patience, constancy, and thing to himself, to other people, and to God. There
longanimity, all apply to the pursuit of a goal, but from are virtues moderating pleasures and sorrows, food
different perspectives: industry is pursuing a goal with and drink, sleep, recreation, etc. Other virtues control
heroic effort, perseverance is pursuing a goal with the our lower instincts or govern social relations. Individual
same enthusiasm to the very end, constancy is happiness, social peace and order depend on the
practice of virtue by the members of society. “Know closer to us than strangers and friends are closer than
then this truth (it is enough for us to know): Virtue enemies.
alone is happiness below.‖
Plato wrote: “The gods have a care of anyone Charity and Material Help
whose desire is to become just and to be like God, as far 1. The rich and the wealthy are morally obliged to
as man can attain to the divine likeness by the pursuit assist the poor directly or indirectly, i.e. through
of virtue.” voluntary contributions to the government and
Socrates spent his life persuading every man charitable civic organizations.
“that he must look to himself and seek virtue and 2. There is no moral obligation to help our neighbbors
wisdom before he looks to his private interests.” in distress if that involves hardships or self-sacrifice.
Aristotle testified that, “happiness is actively in 3. In case of extreme necessity, a human being has the
accordance with virtue.” “Human good turns out to be right to be assisted. Anyone who denies him help is
an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, and if guilty of an inhuman act.
there be more than one virtue, in accordance with the
best and most complete.” Charity and Spiritual Help
Confucius developed a system of Ethics based Charity commands us to help other men in
on the practice of virtues, particularly benevolence, their spiritual needs and to avoid scandal or occasions
wisdom, sincerity, social propriety, and righteousness. which may deviate them their way to the last end.
Jesus Christ showed us the way to virtuous
living. Christian theologians and philosophers, Scandal
especially St. Thomas Aquinas, have written entire According to the Webster dictionary, scandal is
volumes on the nature, distinction and practice of discreditable action or circumstance offensive to
virtue. public morals or feelings; an injury to reputations; a
general criticism that injures reputation, or malicious
Charity gossip.
The greatest ethical principles I contained in
the words of Jesus Christ: “This is my commandment: Kinds of Scandals
that you love one another as I have loved you.” No true 1. Scandal directly intended. Example: by induction.
virtue is possible without charity. Says St. Thomas, 2. Scandal indirectly intended. Example: bad example.
“Charity conceives by the desire of the last end, the 3. Scandal given which is an occasion to evil by a
acts of the other virtues.” Charity is the form, conduct really unedifying. Example: A youth has
mover, mother and root of all the virtues and the acquired the habit of cursing because he has, for
source of good will, kindness, benevolence, mercy, joy, many times, heard elders cursing.
peace, etc. 4. Taken scandal, which is an occasion to evil by
Principally, charity means love of God Who is irreproachable conduct but wrongly interpreted,
the foundation of happiness, the Supreme Good, either by malice or ignorance.
the Last End of man. Secondarily, it means love of The gravity of a scandal depends on the
our neighbors who share the divine goodness with internal disposition and intention of the person giving
us. We should love our neighbors truly for their own the scandal and on the character of the evil provoked
sake rather than our own. All men are brothers by the scandal.
because they are sons of God, they living together in
the same world and are destined to share the same Cooperation in Evil
eternal happiness.
1. Formal cooperation in evil is when one does intend
We are obliged to love our neighbors, but not
the evil by joining, helping, or supplying the means
equally. The highest Good, God, takes priority in man’s
in the performance of an evil action. Example:
heart. After God, man loves himself because he shares
helping a thief enter the home, lending a weapon
closer in the divine goodness before his neighbors.
for committing murder, helping identify a person
There is order of love also with regard to our
sough for revenge. This kind of cooperation in evil
neighbors for we must love them in proportion to the
is always wrong and morally condemned.
closeness of our relation to them. Blood relatives are
2. Material cooperation in evil is when one does not the danger of death, binds the will firmly to the
intend the evil whose external action one is aiding. moral good. Fortitude is a special habit of the soul
Example: an employee is forced by robbers to open which enables one to endure pain, dangers, and death
the safe of the bank. This kind of cooperation is not with calmness of reason.
always blameless. Each case should be judged Chesterson said: “courage is almost a
according to the amount of evil done and to the contradiction in terms. It means a strong desire to
amount of evil which would happen to the person live, taking the form of readiness to die.”
for refusing to cooperate. Aristotle spoke of fortitude as the virtue of a
man “who is fearless in the face of noble death, and of
The Four Cardinal Virtues (Prudence) all emergencies that involve death.”
Prudence. Prudence is the first and most Fortitude is a virtue only when pursuing the
important of all virtues, for man’s good actions are moral good, be it common good or the private good,
ultimately derived from the rectitude of his mind. St. either with regard to the danger of death or in
Thomas defines prudence as wisdom about human connection with other difficulties of life. Example: a
affairs; in particular, about the most important thing in soldier who defies death defending his country; a
life which is the acquisition of the last end. virgin who prefers death to the loss of her chastity; the
Prudence is a habit of the practical reason which public servant who is ready to fight graft and
enables us to judge promptly on particular cases or corruption in spite of threats to his life. But the
contingent actions what is to be done or omitted. This boldness sof a thief is not virtue; neither is to rush into
quality is acquired by memory and experience. peril out of stupidity is not a sign of fortitude.
Plato said: “prudence is vision of the truth of life.”
St. Augustine said: “Prudence is the knowledge of Patience and Perseverance
what is to be sought and avoided.‖ Courage has two functions: 1) an active
It is through prudence that our conscience function impelling man to attack evil; and 2) a passive
informs us what is morally right and wrong. Prudence function which strengthen him to bear evil.
discovers, judges and applies knowledge to human Connected with the second function, we must
actions. Prudence is like the inner form all virtues and mention two important virtues:
it has a middle place between the intellectual and 1. Patience which is a kind of activity that waits for
moral values. the right way and the right time to act. It always
conquers; it is never conquered.
Auxiliary or Assistant Virtues of Prudence 2. Perseverance which is persistence in good work
A. Practical memory – the ability to profit by past through a long period of time. Quite difdferent
experience form perseverance is stubbornness which is not a
B. Practical understanding – the ability to grasp the virtue but a vice.
moral significance of concrete situations
C. Docility – the ability to take a good moral advice The Brave Man
from others A. A brave man is not inspired by thoughts of fame,
D. Ingenuity – the ability to make a quick and good publicity, or eccentricity. He risks his life, because
judgement there is a good reason for doing so. It is foolish to
E. Foresight – the ability to direct our actions in face danger for its own sake or for the pursuit of
advance evil. Boldness without fear is rashness; fear without
F. Circumspection – the ability to consider the boldness is cowardice.
circumstances attending an action B. Moderate and just anger can be a useful instrument
G. Caution – the ability to avoid difficulties and for the man of courage who is not motivated to act
obstacles. by a desire for revenge but by his sense of duty.
C. Courage or fortitude is required to endure the daily
The Four Cardinal Virtues (Fortitude or Courage) trials and difficulties of life. It becomes imperative
St. Thomas describes fortitude as strength of during times of great sorrows and calamities as
the soul which in certain great dangers, especially sickness pestilence, war, etc. I t is also requisite for
policemen, firemen, life guards and others who and dealing with others. Man’s dealing with himself
positions involve risking life during emergencies. are sufficiently rectified by moral virtues of prudence,
fortitude, and temperance. But justice regulates human
The Four Cardinal Virtues (Temperance) relations and defines human rights and duties. It is
Temperance or moderation is a moral virtue properly a social virtue concerning our dealings with
regulating the desire for sensible pleasures within other persons.
the limits of reason and approved modes of social Right is the proper object of the virtue of
behaviour. Sensual delights affect the whole nature of justice and right means to do to others what is just, to
man. give what is due to them.
Self-indulgence, temperance and sensuality
may deprive men of higher goods and joys such as Kinds of Justice
those derived from the intellectual, artistic and moral A. Legal justice – common legal justice, according to
activity. They can also ruin the health of persons and St. Thomas, is the general justice binding all men to
the happiness at homes. do hat is for the common good in accord with the
The most important vices resulting from the law. Since it belongs to the law to direct the acts of
lack of moderation in sensual pleasures are the all citizens to the common good of society, it
following: follows that legal justice is found primarily in the
1. Gluttony is an inordinate desire for food, for lawmakers of the nation and secondarily in the
pleasure’s sake and not for the preservation of life. citizens. Laws are like steel frames of the social
To take too much food is contrary to the rational structure. Without them, it would be impossible to
nature of man and his spiritual character. maintain the social order and to attain universal
2. Drunkenness the inordinate use of alcoholic drinks, happiness. Penalties are provided by law for
which is more degrading a vice than gluttony, for it offenders but good citizens should obey the law for
deprives man of his unique distinction from brutes justice’s sake sand not for fear of punishment.
i.e. that is the use of reason. A drunkard is not B. Distributive justice – is also concerned with persons
mature enough to face the responsibilities of life in the government. It directs state authorities in the
which he, as a human being, must confront with fair distribution or allotment of rewards, honors and
courage or bear with patience. burdens among the members of the community,
The effects of intoxication are: 1) weakening of according to proportional equality. Example: the
the reasoning power and self-control, 2) boisterous or honor and compensation due to an ambassador
aggressive behaviour, 3) loss of coordination and should be might higher than the honor and
sense perception, 4) violent emotional behaviour and compensation given to a government clerk.
5) complete unconsciousness. Distributive justice is of utmost importance to
Drunkenness is a serious individual immoral act ensure the proper function of government and to
and it increases criminality, delinquency, and avoid the evils of nepotism, favouritism, influence
immorality in society. The moderate use of alcohol as a peddling etc.
stimulant, or as medically prescribed to release C. Commutative justice – concerns the relations
nervous tension, or taken in social gatherings to between private individuals. It implies the duty of
promote fellowship is morally allowed. one individual to give another is his due. To
3. Narcotics are drugs which appease irritability or commute means to exchange one thing for another
momentarily relieve fatigue or cause sleep. The use as in the bartering system, or the exchange of
of narcotics, unless prescribed by physicians, is material goods for money as in our present
immoral. They destroy the health of the body and economic system or manual work for a just wage,
soul. etc. Example: the President should pay for the pair
of shoes he orders.
The Four Cardinal Virtues (Justice) D. Social justice – deals with social aspects of property.
Justice is defined as the habit or readiness Justice should be done to so that all citizens should
which inclines the man to give others what is due be given an opportunity for their physical, mental
to them. Justice implies equality, for as water seeks its and moral development. There is no reason why
own level, so justice demands equality on our relation
large portions of society live in poverty while a
minority enjoy luxury.
If all members of the community – professionals and
workers, employers and employees – pool their
energies in a common effort to survive, all of them
should be entitled to proportional share in the fruits of
their labor.
The duties commanded by social justice are:
1. Social justice is a virtue disposing workers and
management towards the establishment of good
relations in order to avoid frictions and strikes.
2. It directs employers in the allotment of just salaries,
bonuses, dividends, compensations, etc., to the
employees.
3. It inspires legislators to enact laws protecting the
welfare and security of the working class.
4. It guides employers and employees in the process
of negotiating collective labor agreements.
5. It demands the participation of workers in the
management and profits of the company.
E. International justice – is concerned with the
common welfare of all nations. The main duties of
international justice are the preservation of world
peace and the promotion of economic progress,
friendly relations, understanding and brotherhood
among nations. International justice is the principal
objective of the United Nations.