APEEJAY COLLEGE OF

FINE ARTS, JALANDHAR

PROJECT FILE OF LINUX

submitted to: submitted

by:
MS. JYOTI ATUL
MAHENDRU
B.VOC E-COMMRECE
AND DIGITAL
MARKETING (SEM-IV)
ROLL NO. 2913
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to
contributed to the successful completion of this
project.
Firstly, I extend my sincere appreciation to assistant
professor MS. JYOTI whose invaluable insights,
constant support, and constructive feedback were
instrumental throughout the development process.
The opportunity to participate in this project has
helped me improve my research skills and I am really
grateful for that.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge my family and
friends for their unwavering support and motivation.
This project has been an incredible learning
experience, and I am deeply grateful to everyone who
supported me along this journey.

DATE OF SUBMISSION:
TEACHER’S SIGNATURE:
INDEX
SERIAL TOPICS PAGE REMARK
NO. NO.
1. INTRODUCTION OF LINUX 4-5

2. HISTORY OF LINUX 6-7

3. WHAT IS LINUX OPERSTING 8-9

SYSTEM?

4. WHY USE LINUX? 10-11

5. LINUX FEATURES 12-13

6. WHAT IS CYGWIN? 14-15

7. HOW CYGWIN WORKS 16-17

8. WHAT IS CYGWIN USED FOR? 18

9. INSTALLING CYGWIN 19-31
10. UBUNTU 32
11. USER -FRIENDLINESS 33-34
12. STRONG SECURITY 35-36

13. DNS 37-39

14. DNS NUTSHELL 40

15. Steps of DNS Configuration 41-45

15. CONCLUSION AND 46
BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION OF LINUX
Linux is a powerful and widely used open-source
operating system based on the Unix operating system.
It was initially developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991
and has since grown into one of the most preferred
operating systems for developers, enterprises, and
individual users.
Key Features of Linux:
1. Open Source: Linux is freely available, and its
source code can be modified and distributed by
anyone.
2. Multi-User & Multitasking: Multiple users can use
the system simultaneously, and it can efficiently
handle multiple tasks at once.
3. Security & Stability: Linux is known for its
robustness, security, and resistance to malware
and viruses.
4. Customizability: Users can choose from different
distributions (distros) such as Ubuntu, Fedora,
Debian, and CentOS, each offering unique
features.
5. Command-Line Interface (CLI) and Graphical User
Interface (GUI): Linux supports both CLI for
advanced users and GUI for ease of access.
6. Networking and Performance: It is widely used for
server management due to its networking
capabilities and high performance.
Linux Distributions (Distros): There are several Linux
distributions, each catering to different user needs.
Some of the popular ones include:
 Ubuntu: User-friendly and widely used for
personal and enterprise applications.
 Fedora: Known for its cutting-edge features and
latest updates.
 Debian: A stable and versatile distribution often
used as a base for others.
 CentOS/RHEL: Preferred for enterprise and server
environments.
Basic Linux Commands:
 ls – Lists files and directories.
 cd – Changes directory.
 mkdir – Creates a new directory.
 rm – Removes files or directories.
 pwd – Displays the current working directory.
 chmod – Modifies file permissions.
 sudo – Executes commands with administrative
privileges.
Applications of Linux:
 Server Management: Many web servers, including
Apache and Nginx, run on Linux.
 Programming & Development: Supports various
programming languages like Python, C, Java, and
Shell scripting.
 Embedded Systems & IoT: Used in embedded
devices, routers, and smart appliances.
 Cybersecurity & Ethical Hacking: Tools like Kali
Linux are widely used for penetration testing and
security research.

HISTORY OF LINUX
Linux is an open-source operating system that has
revolutionized modern computing. Its history dates
back to the late 20th century when computer
enthusiasts sought a free and robust alternative to
proprietary operating systems.
Origins of Linux: The development of Linux began in
1991 when Linus Torvalds, a Finnish computer science
student, sought to create a free and efficient operating
system. He was inspired by MINIX, a Unix-like
operating system used for educational purposes.
Torvalds started writing his own kernel and announced
his project on an online forum, inviting collaboration
from other programmers.
Development and Growth:
 1991: Linus Torvalds released the first version of
Linux kernel (version 0.01) and encouraged
developers worldwide to contribute.
 1992: Linux adopted the GNU General Public
License (GPL), allowing users to freely modify and
distribute the software.
 Mid-1990s: Various Linux distributions (distros)
emerged, such as Slackware and Debian, offering
pre-packaged Linux systems for easier installation
and use.
 Late 1990s: Companies like Red Hat and SUSE
entered the Linux market, making it more
accessible to businesses.
 2000s: Linux gained popularity in enterprise
environments, with major companies such as IBM
and Google adopting it for their servers and cloud
infrastructures.
 2010s-Present: Linux became the foundation for
modern technologies, including Android (which is
based on the Linux kernel), cloud computing, and
IoT devices.
Impact and Evolution: Linux has influenced multiple
fields, including:
 Web Hosting and Servers: Linux powers a
significant percentage of web servers worldwide.
 Mobile Computing: Android, the most widely used
mobile OS, is built on the Linux kernel.
 Supercomputing: Over 90% of the world's
supercomputers run Linux due to its stability and
efficiency.
 Cybersecurity and Ethical Hacking: Specialized
Linux distributions like Kali Linux are widely used
for penetration testing.
 Open-Source Community: Linux has inspired a
global community of developers, leading to
continuous innovation and improvements.

WHAT IS LINUX
OPERATING SYSTEM?
Linux is a powerful, open-source operating system that
serves as the backbone of modern computing. It is
based on the Unix operating system and is widely used
for personal computing, enterprise servers, embedded
systems, and supercomputers. Unlike proprietary
operating systems, Linux is freely available, allowing
users to modify and distribute its source code.
Key Features of Linux:
1. Open Source: Linux is developed and maintained
by a global community of programmers who
continuously improve its security and
functionality.
2. Multi-User & Multitasking: It supports multiple
users and can efficiently handle several tasks
simultaneously.
3. Security & Stability: Linux offers strong security
measures, including user privilege control and
built-in firewall systems, making it less vulnerable
to malware.
4. Customization: With various Linux distributions
(distros) available, users can choose a version that
best suits their needs.
5. Performance & Efficiency: Linux is optimized for
performance, making it a preferred choice for
high-performance computing and servers.
6. Command-Line Interface (CLI) and Graphical User
Interface (GUI): It supports both CLI for power
users and GUI for ease of access.
Popular Linux Distributions:
 Ubuntu: A user-friendly distribution, suitable for
beginners and enterprises.
 Debian: Known for its stability and flexibility, often
used as a base for other distributions.
 Fedora: A cutting-edge Linux distro with the latest
features and updates.
 CentOS/RHEL: Used primarily in enterprise
environments for server management.
 Kali Linux: A security-focused distribution used for
penetration testing and ethical hacking.
Basic Linux Commands:
 ls – Lists files and directories.
 cd – Changes the current directory.
 mkdir – Creates a new directory.
 rm – Deletes files or directories.
 pwd – Displays the current working directory.
 chmod – Changes file permissions.
 sudo – Grants administrative privileges for
executing commands.
Applications of Linux:
 Server Management: Many web hosting services
run on Linux-based servers.
 Software Development: Linux supports various
programming languages and tools.
 Networking & Cloud Computing: Most cloud
platforms are built on Linux.
 Embedded Systems & IoT: Linux is used in smart
devices, routers, and industrial automation.
 Cybersecurity & Ethical Hacking: Security experts
rely on Linux for penetration testing and forensic
analysis.

WHY USE LINUX?

Linux is a widely used operating system known for its
flexibility, security, and cost-effectiveness. It is favored
by individuals, businesses, and developers worldwide
due to its open-source nature and ability to run on
various devices, including desktops, servers,
embedded systems, and cloud infrastructures.
Key Reasons to Use Linux:
1. Open-Source and Free: Unlike proprietary
operating systems, Linux is completely free to use,
modify, and distribute. This makes it a cost-
effective solution for both personal and enterprise
use.
2. Security and Stability: Linux is known for its
robust security features. With strong user
permission management, built-in firewalls, and
regular security updates, it is less vulnerable to
viruses and malware compared to other operating
systems.
3. Performance and Efficiency: Linux is optimized for
speed and efficiency, making it an excellent choice
for both personal computers and enterprise
environments. It requires fewer system resources,
ensuring smooth performance even on older
hardware.
4. Customization and Flexibility: Users can
customize Linux according to their needs. With
multiple distributions (distros) such as Ubuntu,
Fedora, Debian, and Arch Linux, users can choose
an OS tailored to their preferences.
5. Reliability for Servers and Networks: Linux is the
preferred choice for server environments due to
its reliability and ability to handle large-scale
workloads without frequent crashes or slowdowns.
Popular web servers such as Apache and Nginx
run on Linux.
6. Regular Updates and Community Support: Linux
distributions receive frequent updates and
security patches. Being open-source, a global
community of developers continuously improves
and supports Linux.
7. Strong Command-Line Interface (CLI) Support:
Linux provides a powerful command-line interface,
making it ideal for developers and system
administrators who need precise control over
system functions and automation.
8. Support for Multiple Programming Languages:
Linux is an excellent platform for software
development. It supports various programming
languages, including Python, C, Java, Ruby, and
Shell scripting, making it a preferred environment
for developers.
9. Cloud Computing and Virtualization: Many cloud-
based services, including AWS, Google Cloud, and
Microsoft Azure, rely on Linux for their
infrastructure. It also supports virtualization tools
like Docker and Kubernetes for efficient
application deployment.
10. Ideal for Ethical Hacking and Cybersecurity:
Linux distributions like Kali Linux are widely used
by cybersecurity professionals for penetration
testing, network security, and ethical hacking.
LINUX FEATURES
Linux is a feature-rich, open-source operating system
known for its flexibility, security, and scalability. It is
widely used across personal computing, enterprise
systems, cloud environments, and embedded devices.
Below are the key features that make Linux a
preferred choice for users and developers worldwide.
1. Open-Source and Free Linux is completely open-
source, meaning its source code is freely available for
anyone to view, modify, and distribute. This promotes
innovation and allows developers to tailor the system
to their specific needs without licensing fees.
2. Security and Stability Linux is designed with
security as a core principle. It offers strong user
permission controls, built-in firewall configurations,
and regular security updates, making it highly
resistant to malware and cyber threats. Additionally,
its stability ensures that systems experience minimal
crashes and downtime.
3. Multitasking and Multi-User Support Linux
efficiently supports multitasking, allowing multiple
processes to run simultaneously without affecting
system performance. It also supports multiple user
accounts, enabling different users to work on the same
system with specific permissions.
4. High Performance and Resource Efficiency Linux is
optimized for performance, requiring fewer system
resources compared to other operating systems. It can
run efficiently on older hardware and is widely used
for high-performance computing, including
supercomputers and data centers.
5. Customization and Flexibility One of Linux’s biggest
advantages is its high level of customization. Users can
choose from various desktop environments like
GNOME, KDE, and XFCE. Additionally, different Linux
distributions (distros) cater to specific needs, such as
Ubuntu for beginners, Arch Linux for advanced users,
and CentOS for enterprise environments.
6. Strong Command-Line Interface (CLI) and Graphical
User Interface (GUI) Linux provides a powerful
command-line interface (CLI) for advanced users and
system administrators, enabling automation and
scripting. It also offers GUI-based environments for
users who prefer a graphical interface.
7. Support for Multiple File Systems Linux supports a
variety of file systems, including ext4, XFS, Btrfs, and
FAT32, allowing users to optimize storage and data
management. It also provides excellent support for
network file systems like NFS and SMB.
8. Networking and Server Capabilities Linux is widely
used for web hosting, cloud computing, and enterprise
server management. It provides built-in networking
tools and supports protocols like SSH, FTP, and HTTP,
making it a preferred choice for IT infrastructure.
9. Compatibility with Programming and Development
Tools Linux supports a vast range of programming
languages, including Python, Java, C, C++, Ruby, and
Perl. It is widely used in software development,
DevOps, and containerization technologies like Docker
and Kubernetes.
10. Cloud Computing and Virtualization Support Most
cloud platforms, including AWS, Google Cloud, and
Microsoft Azure, use Linux as their primary operating
system. Linux also supports virtualization technologies
like KVM, VirtualBox, and VMware, enabling efficient
deployment of virtual machines.
11. Embedded Systems and IoT Support Linux is
extensively used in embedded systems, IoT devices,
smart appliances, and industrial automation due to its
lightweight nature and scalability.

WHAT IS CYGWIN?
Cygwin is a powerful tool that provides a Linux-like
environment for Windows operating systems. It acts as
a compatibility layer, enabling users to run Linux
applications and utilities on Windows without needing
a virtual machine or dual-boot setup. Cygwin helps
developers, system administrators, and users who rely
on Linux commands and software but need to work
within a Windows environment.
Key Features of Cygwin:
1. Linux Compatibility on Windows: Cygwin allows
users to run Linux-based applications and scripts
on Windows, making it a bridge between the two
operating systems.
2. Extensive Collection of Unix Tools: It includes a
wide range of Unix utilities such as bash, grep,
awk, and sed, allowing users to perform Linux-like
operations within Windows.
3. POSIX Compliance: Cygwin provides an
environment that closely follows the Portable
Operating System Interface (POSIX) standards,
making it easier to port Unix-based software to
Windows.
4. Package Management System: Cygwin includes a
package manager (setup.exe) that allows users to
install, update, and manage thousands of Linux-
like packages.
5. Interoperability with Windows: Unlike virtual
machines, Cygwin allows users to run Windows
applications alongside Linux utilities, enabling
seamless workflow integration.
6. Support for Development and Scripting:
Developers can compile Linux-based applications
on Windows using GCC and other development
tools provided by Cygwin.
7. Networking and Remote Access: It supports SSH,
SCP, and other networking tools, allowing users to
remotely manage servers from a Windows
environment.
8. File System Integration: Cygwin maps Unix-style
paths to Windows directories, enabling file access
between Windows and the Cygwin environment.
Limitations of Cygwin:
 Performance Overhead: Since Cygwin translates
Linux system calls to Windows API calls, it may
not be as efficient as running a native Linux
environment.
 Limited Compatibility: While Cygwin supports
many Linux applications, not all software runs
perfectly due to differences between Windows and
Linux architectures.
 Not a Full Linux Kernel: Cygwin provides a Linux-
like environment but does not include a Linux
kernel, so some features and low-level system
functions may not work.
Alternatives to Cygwin:
 Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL): A more
integrated solution from Microsoft that allows
users to run a full Linux distribution within
Windows.
 Virtual Machines: Running Linux in a virtual
machine using software like VirtualBox or VMware
provides a complete Linux experience.
 Dual Booting: Installing Linux alongside Windows
allows users to switch between operating systems
as needed.

HOW CYGWIN WORKS

Cygwin is a compatibility layer that allows Windows
users to run Linux-like applications and command-line
utilities natively. It provides a collection of GNU and
Open-Source tools that offer a Unix-like environment
on Windows.
1. Cygwin Architecture
Cygwin consists of two main components:
1. Cygwin DLL (cygwin1.dll)
o This is the core of Cygwin, acting as a
translation layer between Linux system calls
and Windows system calls.
o It provides a POSIX (Portable Operating
System Interface) compatibility layer, allowing
Linux software to execute on Windows.
2. A Collection of Unix Tools and Applications
o Includes utilities such as bash, grep, awk, sed,
gcc, make, etc.
o Many Unix-based software programs are
recompiled using the Cygwin environment to
run on Windows.
2. How Cygwin Works
Cygwin allows Linux applications to work on Windows
by translating Linux system calls into equivalent
Windows API calls.
a) System Call Translation
 In Linux, applications interact with the OS
through system calls (e.g., fork (), exec (), open (),
read (), write ()).
 Windows has a different API, so Cygwin acts as a
middleware that converts Linux system calls into
equivalent Windows functions.
 Example: The fork () system call (used to create
processes in Unix) is not natively supported by
Windows. Cygwin emulates it using Windows'
process and thread management functions.
b) File System Emulation
 Cygwin provides a Linux-like file system structure
(/bin, /usr, /home).
 It maps these directories to Windows paths:
o / (root) → C:\cygwin64\
o /home/username → C:\Users\username
o /tmp → C:\cygwin64\tmp
 Cygwin also provides symbolic link emulation,
allowing Unix-style symlinks.
c) Process Management
 Windows does not have a direct equivalent to
Linux’s process management (fork, exec).
 Cygwin implements fork () by duplicating
processes using Windows API (Create Process and
memory copying techniques).
d) Terminal and Shell
 Cygwin provides a Bash shell (bash.exe) that
works like a Linux terminal.
 Users can install zsh, fish, and other Unix shells.
 The shell provides Unix-like command-line
utilities.
e) Compatibility with Windows
 Cygwin allows running both Windows and Linux
applications side by side.
WHAT IS CYGWIN USED
FOR?
Cygwin brings Linux to the Windows environment.
Users can interact with Cygwin through a Unix shell,
such as bash, tcsh or zsh. From there, they can issue
Unix commands much like they would on a Unix or
Linux computer.
Examples of the Unix commands include the
following:
• The grep command is used to search for files.
• The mkdir command creates a new
directory.
• The chmod command sets file-level
permissions.

Users can also access the Cygwin environment

through the Windows command shell. In addition,
Cygwin lets developers compile Unix or Linux
applications through one of the available Unix shells.
They can then run the applications on their Windows
systems. In his way, they can migrate their Unix or
Linux applications to Windows-based systems without

INSTALLING CYGWIN
To install Cygwin on a Microsoft Windows host,
follow these steps:
1. Access the following URL, then click Install
Cygwin:
http://www.cygwin.com/
2. Download the 32-bit version (if you are running a
32-bit version of
Microsoft Windows) or the 64-bit version (if you
are running a 64-bit version of Microsoft Windows)
of the Cygwin setup executable.
3. Run the setup executable, then click Next to
proceed.
4. On the Choose Installation Type screen, select
Install from Internet, then click Next.
5. On the Choose Installation Directory screen, enter
C:\cygwin as the Root Directory, then click Next.
Note:
If you choose to install Cygwin in a different directory,
then ensure that you update the SSH_PATH,
SCP_PATH, MKDIR_PATH, SH_PATH,
CHMOD_PATH,and TRUE properties present in
the $<ORACLE_HOME>\oui\prov\resources\
ssPaths_msplats.properties file to their proper Cygwin
binary values, after installing the Enterprise Manager
system.
For example, if you choose to install Cygwin in the D:\
software\cygwin directory, then update the specified
properties in the following manner:
Copy
SCP_PATH=D:\software\cygwin\bin\scp.exe
SH_PATH=D:\software\cygwin\bin\sh.exe
CHMOD_PATH=D:\software\cygwin\bin\chmod.exe
LS_PATH=D:\software\cygwin\bin\ls.exe
6. On the Select Local Package Directory screen,
select a directory on your local machine where
you want to store the downloaded installation
files, then click Next.
7. On the Select Connection Type screen, select
appropriate settings to connect to the internet,
then click Next.
8. On the Choose Download Site(s) screen, select
any site from the available list, then click Next.

9. On the select packages screen, ensure that you

select the following packages, then click Next:
From the Archive category, select unzip and
zip as follows:
From the Net category, select openssh and
openssl as follows:

After selecting the packages and clicking Next, the

Resolving Dependencies screen is
displayed. Click Next to proceed.
10. On the Installation Status and Create Icons
screen, do not make any changes. Click Finish to
complete the installation process.

To configure SSH and test your Cygwin setup,

follow these steps:
1. After you install Cygwin, navigate to the C:\
cygwin directory, open the Cygwin.bat file in
edit mode using any editor, and add the
following line before invoking the bash shell.
set CYGWIN=binmode ntsec
For example, here are the contents for the
Cygwin.bat file after adding the above line: Copy
@echo off
C:
chdir C:\
cygwin\bin
set
CYGWIN=bi
nmode ntsec
bash --login -i
2. To verify if Cygwin (cygrunsrv) is installed
properly, run C:\cygwin\Cygwin.bat, and
execute the following command:
cygrunsrv -h
If Cygwin is installed properly, then all the Cygwin
help options are displayed on the screen. However, if
this command returns an error message, then you
may have to reinstall Cygwin.
3. To configure the SSHD service, run C:\cygwin\
Cygwin.bat, and execute the following
command:
ssh-host-config
After running the command, you are prompted the
following questions: Copy
Info: StrictModes is set to 'yes' by default.
Info: This is the recommended setting, but it requires
that the POSIX
Info: permissions of the user's home directory, the
user's .ssh
Info: directory, and the user's ssh key
files are tight so that Info: only the user
has written permissions.
Info: On the other hand, StrictModes don't work well
with default
Info: Windows permissions of a home directory
mounted with the
Info: 'noacl' option, and they don't work
at all if the home Info: directory is on a
FAT or FAT32 partition.
Query: Should StrictModes be used? (yes/no) no
Query: Should privilege separation be used?
<yes/no>: yes
Query: New local account 'sshd'?
<yes/no>: yes Query: Do you
want to install sshd as a service?
Query: <Say "no" if it is already installed as a
service> <yes/no>: yes
Query: Enter the value of CYGWIN for the deamon: []
binmode ntsec
Query: Do you want to use a different name? (yes/no)
yes/no
At this point, if you want to use the same name, that is
cyg_server, enter no. You are then prompted the
following questions:
Copy
Query: Create new privileged user account
'cyg_server'? (yes/no) yes Query: Please enter the
password:
Query: Renter:
However, if you want to use a different name, enter
yes. You are then prompted the following questions:
Copy
Query: Enter the new user’s name: cyg_server1
Query: Reenter: cyg_server1
Query: Create new privileged user account
'cyg_server1'? (yes/no) yes Query: Please enter the
password:
Query: Reenter:
If the configuration is successful, you will see the
following message:
Host configuration finished. Have fun!
4. Backup the c:\cygwin\etc\passwd file and then use
any editor to open the file in edit mode. Remove
only those entries of the user that you will use to
connect to the host on which you want to install a
Management Agent. Ask the user to make a
backup of the c:\cygwin\etc\passwd file before
editing.
• If the user that you are employing to
connect to the host on which you want to
install the Management Agent is a local
user, run C:\cygwin\Cygwin.bat and execute
the following:
/bin/mkpasswd -l –u <USER> >> /etc/passwd (for
example, /bin/mkpasswd -l -u pjohn >> /etc/passwd)
• If the user you are employing to connect to
the host on which you want to install the
Management Agent running is a domain
user, run C:\cygwin\Cygwin.bat and execute
the following:
Copy
/bin/mkpasswd -d -u <USER> >> /etc/passwd (for
example, /bin/mkpasswd -d -u pjohn >> /etc/passwd)
mkdir -p /home/<USER> (for example, mkdir -
p /home/pjohn) chown <USER> /home/<USER>
(for example, chown pjohn /home/pjohn)
5. (For a domain user only) If the user you are
employing to connect to the host on which you
want to install the Management Agent is a domain
user, do the following to start the SSH daemon:
a. Right-click on My Computer, and select Manage.
b. In the Computer Management dialog box that
appears, go to Services and Applications, and
select CYGWIN sshd.
c. Right-click CYGWIN sshd and select Properties.
d. In the Properties dialog box, go to the Log On tab.
e. Here, specify the domain/user name and
password. Click Apply.
f. Run C:\cygwin\Cygwin.bat, and execute the
following: Copy
chown
<USERNAME>
/var/log/sshd.log
chown -R
<USERNAME>
/var/empty chown
<USERNAME>
/etc/ssh* chmod
755 /var/empty
chmod 644
/var/log/sshd.log
Note:
If /var/log/sshd.log does not exist, you do not have to
execute the following commands:
Copy
chown <USERNAME>
/var/log/sshd.log chmod
644 /var/log/sshd.log
6. Perform one of the following steps to start the
SSH daemon:
Run C:\cygwin\Cygwin.bat and execute the following
command:
/usr/sbin/sshd
OR
Run C:\cygwin\Cygwin.bat and execute the following
command:
cygrunsrv -S sshd
OR
Perform these steps:
a. Right-click on My Computer, and select Manage.
b. In the Computer Management dialog box that
appears, go to Services and Applications, and
select CYGWIN sshd.
c. Click CYGWIN sshd, then click the Start button.

Note:
If the SSH daemon does not start up, view the c:\
cygwin\var\log\sshd.log file for information on why the
startup failed.
7. You can now test your Cygwin setup. To do this,
go to a different machine (that has the ssh client
running), and execute the following command: Copy
ssh -l <USERNAME> <localhost> 'date'
OR
ssh -l <USERNAME>
<this node> 'date' For
example,
ssh -l pjohn example.com 'date'
This command will prompt you to specify the
password. When you specify the correct password, the
command should return the accurate date.

UBUNTU
Ubuntu was introduced in 2004 by a British company
Canonical. It was based on Debian – a popular distro
back then – which was difficult to install. As a result,
Ubuntu was proposed as a more user-friendly
alternative. As the manager of Ubuntu, Canonical is
responsible for releasing a new Ubuntu version every
six months. Canonical also provides hosting servers for
Ubuntu Community, allowing people worldwide to
contribute to testing software bugs, answer questions,
and give technical support for free.
Ubuntu is a free and open-source Linux distribution
based on Debian. It is one of the most popular Linux
operating systems, widely used for personal
computing, servers, cloud computing, and IoT devices.
 Developed and maintained by Canonical Ltd.
 Released in 2004 by Mark Shuttleworth.
 Focuses on user-friendliness, stability, and
security.
 Available in different flavors: Desktop, Server,
Cloud, and Core (IoT).
 Designed for personal computers and
workstations.
 Comes with a Graphical User Interface (GUI).
 Default desktop environment: GNOME.
 Pre-installed software: Firefox, LibreOffice,
Thunderbird, Rhythmbox, etc.
 Supports Snap and APT package managers for
software installation.

USER -FRIENDLINESS
Ubuntu uses Linux desktop environments for its
interface. Since Ubuntu
17.10, GNOME is the default one. GNOME doesn’t
clutter the screen with descriptions, instead using
icons to facilitate navigation.
By default, GNOME features the Activities panel on the
left taskbar.
GNOME Desktop Environment (Default)
 Clean and minimalistic design.

 Easy-to-use application launcher and system tray.

 Supports drag-and-drop functionality.

 Customizable with themes, extensions, and

widgets.

Controls are situated on the top-right corner of the

screen.
A full applications overview can be viewed by clicking
the grid button on the bottom-left corner of the screen.

STRONG SECURITY
Ubuntu is open-source, undergoing constant checks
and reviews by its community members. As a result,
any security vulnerabilities can be identified and
eliminated quickly. Generally, Linux distributions have
fewer security flaws compared to other operating
systems.
What’s more, Ubuntu employs AppArmor, a kernel
enhancement that restricts how programs behave and
limits their resources. It works when you have profiles
inserted into the kernel.
Step 1. Check the status of UFW firewall: ufw status
sudo ufw status.

Step2. Enable UFW Firewall: ufw enable

Sudo ufc enable

Step 3. sudo ufw allow ssh

Step4. sudo ufw allow from 192.168.1.7 port

ssh

step 5. sudo
ufw deny 80

Step 6. Get the detailed status of the UFW

Firewall: ufw status verbose

Step 7. Reject network connections using the UFW

Firewall: ufw reject

Step 8. Change UFW Firewall logging level:

ufw logging

Step9. Disable UFW Firewall in Ubuntu: ufw

disable
DNS
All computers on the Internet, from your smart phone
or laptop to the servers that serve content for massive
retail websites, find and communicate with one
another by using numbers. These numbers are known
as IP addresses. When you open a web browser and go
to a website, you don't have to remember and enter a
long number. Instead, you can enter a domain name
like example.com and still end up in the right place.
Types of DNS Service
Authoritative DNS: An authoritative DNS service
provides an update mechanism that developers use to
manage their public DNS names. It then answers DNS
queries, translating domain names into IP address so
computers can communicate with each other.
Recursive DNS: Clients typically do not make queries
directly to authoritative DNS services. Instead, they
generally connect to another type of DNS service
known a resolver, or a recursive DNS service.

How Does DNS Route Traffic to Your Web

Application?
The following diagram gives an overview of how
recursive and authoritative DNS services work
together to route an end user to your website or
application.
WORKING OF DNS ROUTE TRAFFIC:
1. A user opens a web browser, enters
www.example.com in the address bar, and presses
Enter.
2. The request for www.example.com is routed to a
DNS resolver, which is typically managed by the user's
Internet service provider (ISP), such as a cable
Internet provider, a DSL broadband provider, or a
corporate network.
3. The DNS resolver for the ISP forwards the request
for www.example.com to a DNS root name server.
4. The DNS resolver for the ISP forwards the request
for www.example.com again, this time to one of the
TLD name servers for .com domains. The name server
for .com domains responds to the request with the
names of the four Amazon Route 53 name servers that
are associated with the example.com domain.
5. The DNS resolver for the ISP chooses an Amazon
Route 53 name server and forwards the request for
www.example.com to that name server.
6. The Amazon Route 53 name server looks in the
example.com hosted zone for the www.example.com
record, gets the associated value, such as the IP
address for a web server, 192.0.2.44, and returns the
IP address to the DNS resolver.
7. The DNS resolver for the ISP finally has the IP
address that the user needs. The resolver returns that
value to the web browser. The DNS resolver also
caches (stores) the IP address for example.com for an
amount of time that you specify so that it can respond
more quickly the next time someone browser to
example.com. For more information, see time to live
(TTL).
8. The web browser sends a request for
www.example.com to the IP address that it got from
the DNS resolver. This is where your content is, for
example, a web server running on an Amazon EC2
instance or an Amazon S3 bucket that's configured as
a website endpoint.
9. The web server or other resource at 192.0.2.44
returns the web page for www.example.com to the web
browser, and the web browser displays the page.
DNS NUTSHELL
In DNS, each domain can be broken into a number of
subdomains, and responsibility for those subdomains
can be doled out to different organizations. For
example, the InterNIC runs the Edu (educational)
domain, but delegates responsibility for the
berkeley.edu subdomain to U.C. Berkeley (Figure 1-3).
This is similar to remotely mounting a filesystem:
certain directories in a filesystem may actually be
filesystems on other hosts, mounted from remote
hosts. The administrator on host winken, for example
(again, Figure 1-3), is responsible for the filesystem
that appears on the local host as the directory
/usr/nfs/winken.
Steps of DNS Configuration
Let's learn how to configure DNS in Linux by the steps
mentioned below.
Step - 1: Determine Your Linux Distribution
Before getting started, it's essential to identify your
specific Linux distribution. Various Linux distributions
have slightly different package managers, commands,
and file locations. For determining the Linux
distribution installed in the system, we will use the
hostnamectl command. Just open a terminal window
and run the command.
hostnamectl

2. It will display various system information, including

the operating system and kernel.
Step - 2: Install DNS Server Software
Once you've determined your Linux distribution, the
next step is to install the DNS server software. Bind
(Berkeley Internet Name Domain) is a widely used
and highly reliable DNS server software. To install
Bind, open the terminal and use the appropriate
package manager command for your distribution. For
example, on Ubuntu, you can use the below-mentioned
command.
sudo apt-get install bind9
This step will install the BIND DNS software on the
Linux System.

Step - 3: Configure Bind DNS Server

After installing Bind, you need to configure it
according to your requirements. The main
configuration file for Bind is generally located at
/etc/bind/named.conf. Open this file with a text editor
of your choice.
Within the configuration file, you'll find sections to
define DNS zones, specify records, and set server
options. It's crucial to review and understand these
sections before making any changes. Properly
configuring these options is essential for smooth DNS
resolution.
• Configure global options such as the listen-on
directive for specifying IP addresses.
• Allow-query to define which clients can query the
server.
• Set up logging options for troubleshooting purposes.
• Define the zones you want to serve, including
forward and reverse lookup zones.
Step - 4: Define DNS Zones and Records
To effectively configure your DNS server, you'll need to
define DNS zones and their corresponding records. A
DNS zone represents a portion of the DNS namespace
and contains resource records that map domain names
to IP addresses.
• Locate the zone section, where you can define your
DNS zones.
• Each zone should have a unique name and specify
the zone type, such as forward or reverse.
• Within each zone, you can add various resource
records, such as SOA (Start of Authority), NS
(Name Server), A (Address), CNAME (Canonical
Name), MX (Mail Exchange), and others.
• Save the zone files in a designated directory,
usually /var/cache/bind/ or /var/named/.
Step - 5: Update the name.conf File with Zone
Information
In this step, we need to update the name.conf file with
zone information.
• In the named.conf file, include the zone files you
created by using the "file" directive.
• Specify the file paths for the zone files and link them
to the respective zones.

Step - 6: Restart and Update DNS Resolvers

Once you have defined your DNS zones and records,
run a syntax check to ensure the BIND configuration is
correct.
named-checkconf /path/to/named.conf
if the check passes, save the changes to the Bind
configuration file. To apply the configuration changes,
restart the DNS server. In the terminal, use the
following command.
sudo systemctl restart bind9
After the DNS server restarts, we need to update the
DNS resolvers. If you are hosting authoritative DNS,
update the DNS resolvers for your domain to point to
the BIND server.
This can typically be done through your domain
registrar or DNS hosting provider's control panel.
Step - 7: Testing the DNS Server
Now, it's time to test your DNS configuration. You can
use tools like Dig or nslookup to perform DNS lookups
and verify the responses. Additionally, ensure that
client machines can successfully resolve domain names
using your DNS server. So that is how to configure
DNS in Linux
CONCLUSION AND
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Conclusion:
Linux has established itself as one of the most reliable,
secure, and versatile operating systems available
today. Its open-source nature has contributed to its
rapid growth, encouraging innovation and
collaboration from developers worldwide. From
servers and supercomputers to mobile devices and
embedded systems, Linux continues to be a preferred
choice for various applications. Its flexibility, stability,
and strong community support make it an ideal
operating system for users ranging from beginners to
experienced IT professionals. As technology advances,
Linux's role in cloud computing, cybersecurity, and
open-source development will only grow, ensuring its
relevance and importance in the digital landscape.
Configuring a DNS server in a Linux environment
allows you to take control of DNS resolution and
enhance network efficiency. Take the plunge and start
configuring your DNS server in Linux today. Enjoy the
benefits of efficient domain name resolution, improved
network performance, and greater control over your
network's DNS infrastructure and this is how to
configure DNS in Linux.
Bibliography:
1. Linux Documentation Project. "Linux Guides and
How-Tos." https://www.tldp.org.
2. Red Hat. "Understanding Linux." https://www.redhat.Linux
3. CHAT GPT