Aerospace Control Systems

Dr J. Mudare
[email protected]
TOPICS
• Introduction (Elements of control)

• Transfer Functions

• Laplace Transforms

• System response

• Frequency response

• Mathematical modelling of control systems

• Z-Transforms

• Digital Control

• Stability Analysis
What are Control Systems?

• The study and design of Automatic Control Systems, a field

known as control engineering or automation, has become
important in modern technical society.
• Automatic control systems play a vital role in the
(technological) process of human civilization.
• In the early days, people used levers and linkages to control
processes which required energy and power beyond human
reach.
• Now, society tends to rely heavily on automatic control
systems for its day to day operation.
• These control systems range from very simple to fairly
complex in nature.
What are Control Systems?

Simple systems
• Automatic washing machines
• Refrigerators
• Ovens

Complex systems
• Aircraft automatic pilots
• Welding and inspection robots used in manufacturing and
electric power generation and distribution systems.
Elements of control
System
A system is a collection, set, or arrangement of elements
(Subsystem) that act together to perform a certain objective.

Subsystem
A subsystem is part of a system.
-any system may be considered as a subsystem of a larger
system

Element(component)
An element is the smallest part of a system that can be
treated as a whole(entity).
Elements of control
Block
A block is a set of elements that can be grouped together, with
overall characteristics described by an input/output relationship.

Control
Control means to regulate, direct, or govern.

Automatic
Automatic implies self-action with minimum or without any human
intervention.
Elements of control
Control System
A control system is a group of physical components forming a
system that controls itself or another system to provide a
desired response.
Or
A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that
manages, commands, directs or regulates the behaviour of
other device(s) or system(s) to achieve desired results.

Plant
A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of
machine parts functioning together, the purpose of which is
to perform a particular operation.
Elements of control
Disturbances
A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of
the output of a system. If a disturbance is generated within the
system, it is called internal, while an external disturbance is generated
outside the system and is an input.

Controlled variable
Controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is measured and
controlled. Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the
system.

Control signal
The control signal or manipulated variable is the quantity or condition
that is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the
controlled variable.
Elements of control
Controller
A controller is a control system that manages the behavior of another
device or system.

Compensator
A Compensator is a control system that regulates another system,
usually by conditioning the input or the output to that system.
- Compensators are typically employed to correct a single design flaw,
with the intention of affecting other aspects of the design in a
minimal manner.
- A compensator is an additional component or circuit that is inserted
into a control system to compensate for a deficient performance of
the overall system.
Elements of control

Manual Control System

A manual control system is a control system regulated through
human intervention

Open loop control system

An open loop control system is a control system in which the control
(regulating) action is independent of the output.

Closed loop control

A closed loop control system is a control system in which the control
(regulating) action is influenced by the output.
Elements of control
Feedback
A system in which the value of some output quantity is controlled by
feeding back the value of the controlled quantity and using it to
manipulate the input quantity.

Linear system
A linear system is a system where input/output relationships maybe
represented by a linear differential equation or control systems which
follow the principle of homogeneity and additivity.

• Ohm’s law assumes a linear relationship between the voltage drop

across a resistor and the current flow through it. It is certainly valid
over a wide range of currents and voltages but does not hold for very
high current flows through a metal wire
Elements of control
Single input - Single output (SISO) System

A Single input- single output (SISO) system is a system where only one
parameter is entered as input and only one parameter represents the
output.

• A home heating (or cooling ) system involves a SISO system. A single

parameter, the desired room temperature, is entered as the
reference variable and results in only one controlled (output)
variable: actual room temperature.
Elements of control
Multiple Input, Multiple Output (MIMO) System
(multivariable control systems )
A Multiple Input, Multiple Output (MIMO) System is a system where
several parameters may be entered as input and output is represented
by multiple variables

input output

• A typical home heating system is a SISO system where a single

parameter, room temperature is monitored and controlled. If you add
humidity control to the home heating system (environmental control
system) with both temperature and humidity being monitored and
controlled, the system becomes a MIMO type.
Elements of control
• A chemical process plant typically has several reference inputs and
requires the control of several output variables.

Time Invariant System

A time Invariant system is a system described by a differential equation
with constant coefficients

• A spring mass and damper system represents a time-invariant system

if the characteristics of all three components do not change with time
Elements of control
Time Variant Systems
A time variant system is a system described by a differential equation
with variable coefficients.

• A rocket burning fuel represents a time-variant system. The mass of

the rocket does not remain constant during a flight but changes as
fuel is burned. Thus the differential equation describing the rocket
dynamics at the time of lift-off does not properly represent the
system after a significant amount of fuel has been burned.
Branches of Control Engineering

• Here we are going to give a brief listing of the various

different methodologies within the sphere of control
engineering.

• Oftentimes, the lines between these methodologies are

blurred, or even erased completely.
Branches of Control Engineering

Classical Controls
• Control methodologies where the ODEs(Ordinary
Differential Equations) that describe a system are
transformed using the Laplace, Fourier, or Z Transforms,
and manipulated in the transform domain.

Modern Controls
• Methods where high-order differential equations are
broken into a system of first-order equations.
• The input, output, and internal states of the system are
described by vectors called "state variables".
Branches of Control Engineering

Robust Control
• Control methodologies where arbitrary outside
noise/disturbances are accounted for, as well as internal
inaccuracies caused by the heat of the system itself, and
the environment.

Optimal Control
• In a system, performance metrics are identified, and
arranged into a "cost function". The cost function is
minimized to create an operational system with the lowest
cost.
Branches of Control Engineering
Adaptive Control
• In adaptive control, the control system changes its response
characteristics over time to better control the system.

Nonlinear Control
• The youngest branch of control engineering, nonlinear
control encompasses systems that cannot be described by
linear equations or ODEs, and for which there is often very
little supporting theory available.
Branches of Control Engineering
Game Theory
Game Theory is a close relative of control theory, and
especially robust control and optimal control theories. In
game theory, the external disturbances are not considered
to be random noise processes, but instead are considered
to be "opponents". Each player has a cost function that
they attempt to minimize, and that their opponents
attempt to maximize.
Functioning of a Control System

• All Control systems, whether simple or complex, function in

a very similar manner.
• The controller(brain of the control system) compares the
actual value of the controlled variable to the desired value
and tries to manipulate the process in such a fashion the
controlled variable approaches the desired value.
• Operation of a control system is no different than tasks
routinely carried out by humans. Consider the task of
reaching for a glass on a table.
• The objective of the task is fairly simple: the hand has to be
moved so that it touches the glass. The entire process can
be summarized as follows:
Functioning of a Control System

Reaching for a glass

Functioning of a Control System
• Reference input (Objective): Reach for the glass
• Controller (Human brain): look at the glass (feedback) and
determine(estimate) the distance between the hand and
the glass.
• Manipulate (final control element): Move the arm toward
the glass
• Feedback (eye): Get a new estimate of the distance
between the hand and the glass.
• Loop (repeat): Move the arm until feedback (eye) indicates
that the hand has reached the glass.
Functioning of a Control System

Information flow: reaching for a glass

Functioning of a Control System
• The visual feedback is the single most important part of
the whole process. Without visual feedback (or auditory or
any other kind), it is not possible to reach for the glass.

• Movement of the human hand is very imprecise. It cannot

move through a precise distance on command (desire),
but the use of (visual) feedback allows the hand
movement to be very precisely controlled.
Block Diagrams

• A Control System consists of a number of components

connected to perform a desired function. These components
vary in nature and may be electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, or
mechanical.
• Control system theory is not concerned with the physical
nature of components and or the type of energy exchange
that may be taking place.
• Once a component (system or subsystem) is reduced to a
mathematical model, it can be represented as a black box
(block), with the component operation described by the
mathematical function.
• This process is repeated for all the parts of the system, so the
system is reduced to a number of interconnected black boxes.
Block Diagrams
• These interconnected blocks can be combined into a single
block (mathematical expression).
• This overall mathematical expression contains all the
necessary information about the performance of the
original control system.
• This greatly simplifies the analysis and design process,
where the signal flow between these components is of
most concern.
• Block diagrams also lend themselves to easier simulation
using operational amplifiers as well as digital computers.
Block Diagrams
Definition of a block diagram
• A block diagram is a set of elements that can be grouped
together, with overall characteristics described by an
input/output relationship.
• It is basically a shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause-
and-effect relationship between the input and output of a
physical system.
• In a block diagram representation, every component (or
subsystem) is represented as a rectangular block containing one
input and one output.
• All the blocks are connected by arrows representing the signal
flow path.
• The operation of the component is described by the
mathematical function enclosed within the block.
Block Diagrams

Simple block diagram

Block Diagrams
Example 2.1
An operational amplifier has a voltage gain of 10. Figure 2.2 is a
block diagram representation of this amplifier.

Figure 2.2

• A complete amplifier has a number of passive components

associated with it and it also requires a power supply for operation.
• The block diagram does not provide that information. Its sole
purpose is to describe the relationship between input and output
signals
Block Diagrams
Example 2.2
Figure 2.3 represents a differentiator function. This
differentiator maybe mechanical, fluidic or electronic in
nature, but this information is not available from the block
diagram .

Figure 2.3
Block Diagrams

Summing point
• The summing point is the block used to represent the
addition and/or subtraction of signals.
• It is shown as a small circle connected to arrows
representing signal lines.
• Incoming lines are further identified with either a positive
or negative sign, indicating the addition or subtraction
process.
• Output of a summing point is again a signal, shown with an
outgoing arrow. No sign is attached to this outgoing signal.
• It is also known as a summing junction.
Block Diagrams
Summing point
Block Diagrams
Take off point
• A takeoff point is used when a signal needs to be routed to
two or more blocks. It can be thought of as an electrical
junction with voltage being sent to all connected terminals.
• It is represented as a dot (solid circle) with arrows away
from it
Block Diagrams
•  Block diagram representation of an equation
• Algebraic equations and mathematical functions
can be very conveniently represented using block
diagrams.
a.
Block Diagrams
•  
Block Diagrams
Block Diagram representation of Control Systems
• A pictorial diagram of a process generally conveys
information about the physical components used in the
process and does not provide information about the
interaction of control signals.
• For the purpose of analysis it is vital to know the way
control information is being transferred from one
component to another.
• Once components are replaced by equivalent blocks and
these blocks are connected through signal-flow lines. The
pictorial view has been transformed into an equivalent
block diagram.
Block Diagrams

Figure 2.7 level control system

Block Diagrams
Figure 2.7 shows the main components of a level control system. Before
this pictorial can be transformed into a block diagram, an understanding
of system operation and components interaction need to be developed.
Two basic questions can be asked.

1. What is being controlled?

The main objective of this control system is to maintain
(control) the fluid level (controlled variable) in the tank (process,
or plant) at the desired value (set point, or reference).

2. How is it being controlled?

Fluid level in the tank cannot be directly controlled. It can be
controlled only by changing (manipulating) the water flow
(manipulated variable) into the tank.
Block Diagrams
Control system operation
• The operator sets the desired level at the controller panel
(SP).
• The difference between SP(set point) and MV (measured
value) generates an error signal (E = SP – MV).
• If the error signal is positive, then it indicates to the
controller that actual level is lower than desired level and an
actuating signal is generated, which opens the flow control
valve (FCE- final control element) to allow a higher flow rate
into the tank.
• On the other hand, if the actual level is higher than the
desired level, then the valve opening is reduced to reduce
inflow rate.
Block Diagrams
• If the control system has been set up (tuned) properly, then
the level will reach the desired value.
• The control cycle continues to monitor the fluid level, and if
it changes due to variation in outflow rate (which is
externally controlled), then the controller will manipulate
the flow rate to maintain the fluid level.
• Once a clear-cut understanding of control system operation
is developed, a block diagram representation can be
prepared (figure 2.8).
Block Diagrams

Figure 2.8 Block diagram representation of a level control system

Block Diagrams
Transfer functions
• In control theory, functions called transfer functions are
commonly used to characterize the input-output
relationship of components or systems that can be
described by linear, time-invariant differential equations.

Definition: Transfer function

• The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant differential
equation is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output(response function) to the Laplace transform of
the input(driving function) under the assumption that all
the initial conditions are zero.
Transfer functions
•  
Transfer functions
Transfer function of a closed loop system
• Closed loop control systems can be divided into two categories,
based upon the nature of the feedback signal.

Figure 2.10 Negative feedback closed loop system

Transfer functions
Negative feedback closed-loop system
• Figure 2.10 shows one of the simplest forms of a negative
feedback closed loop control system. It has one block in the
forward path and one block in the feedback path.
• Practically, all control systems can be reduced to this
simplified form.
• Block G represents the gain of all the blocks in the forward
path, and block H represents the gain of all the blocks in the
feedback path.
• Our objective is to reduce this control system to just a
single block
Transfer functions
• The following relationships can be determined from the
block diagram:

Feedback signal = output x feedback path gain = CH (2.1)

Error signal E = input – feedback signal = R – CH (2.2)
Output signal C = error signal x forward path gain = EG (2.3)

• Substituting the value of the error signal from (2.2) to (2.3)

Output C = (R - CH) x G
C = RG – CGH
C + CGH = RG
C(1 + GH) = RG
Transfer functions

Figure 2.11 reduced form of a closed loop control system

Transfer functions
Some observation can be drawn from this relationship:
• The control system transfer function is a property of the
system.
• The transfer function is dependent only upon its
internal structure and components.
• The transfer function is independent of the input
applied to the System.

When an input signal is applied to a closed loop control

system, an output is generated, which is dependent not
only upon the input, but also upon the system transfer
function.
Transfer functions
Positive feedback closed loop System

Figure 2.12 positive feedback closed-loop system.

Transfer functions
• Figure 2.12 shows a simple positive feedback closed loop
control system. It again has one block in the forward path
and one block in the feedback path.

• The transfer function of the positive-feedback closed loop

control system can be similarly determined and is given as

Feedback signal = output x feedback path gain = CH

(2.4)
Error signal E = input + feedback signal = R + CH (2.5)
Output signal C = error signal x forward path gain = EG
(2.6)
Transfer functions
••  Substituting the value of the error signal from (2.5) to (2.6)
Transfer functions
Comparison of Positive-feedback and Negative-Feedback systems

Negative feedback closed loop system

• The transfer function (CLTF) is generally less than 1.
• The CLTF remains a finite value as long as the denominator is
greater than zero.
• It is commonly used in control systems.

Positive –feedback closed loop System

• The CLTF tends to be very large as GH (loop gain) approaches 1.
• It is generally restricted to specialized applications, such as
oscillators and timing circuits.
Transfer functions
Unity Feedback Systems
• If feedback gain is unity (H = 1), the control system block
diagram can be further simplified (figure 2.14).

Figure 2.14 Unity gain feedback System

Transfer functions
•  
• In this case, the feedback signal reaching the summing point is the same as the
controlled output.
• A number of control input analysis techniques are based upon the use of a
unity feedback configuration.

When the feedback is unity (H = 1)

Transfer functions
• Conversion
  to a Unity feedback system
• Any closed-loop system can be converted into an
equivalent unity feedback system (Figure 2.15). The transfer
function of a normal negative feedback system with
forward gain G and feedback gain H is given as

• Multiplying and dividing by feedback gain H gives

Transfer functions

Figure 2.15 Equivalent unity gain feedback system

Block Diagram Simplification

• Even a simple closed loop control system may contain a

large number of blocks and may involve multiple feedback
(or feedforward) paths.
• It is necessary to reduce the block diagram to a simplified
form before an overall transfer function can be obtained.
• The following set of rules aids in the simplification of block
diagrams.
Block Diagram Simplification

Block Diagram Reduction Rules

1. Combine all cascade blocks

2. Combine all parallel blocks
3. Eliminate all minor (interior) feedback loops
4. Shift summing points to the left
5. Shift takeoff points to the right
6. Repeat Steps 1 to 5 until the canonical form is obtained.
Block Diagram Simplification
Basic rules with block diagram transformation
Block Diagram Simplification
Table 2: Basic rules with block diagram transformation
Block Diagram Simplification
Examples
• Simplify the following block diagrams

(a)
Block Diagram Simplification
(b)
Block Diagram Simplification
(c)