Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

MA201 Mathematics III

MGPP, AC, ST, SP

IIT Guwahati

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Topic 02: Learning Outcome
We learn
Complex Functions and its visualization
Limits of Functions
Point at Infinity (∞), Extended Complex Plane and Riemann Sphere
Limits involving ∞
Continuity
Properties of Continuous Functions
Differentiation
Properties of Differentiable Functions
Cauchy Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Properties of Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
Finding Harmonic Conjugate
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03
Complex Functions

Definition
A complex valued function f of a complex variable is a rule that assigns to each
complex number z in a set D ⊆ C one and only complex value w. We write w = f (z)
and call w the image of z under f . The set D is called the domain of the definition of f
and the set of all images R = {w = f (z) : z ∈ D} is called the range of f .

Usually, the real and imaginary parts of z are denoted by x and y, and those of the
image point w are denoted by u and v respectively, so that w = f (z) = u + i v, where
u ≡ u(z) = u(x, y) and v ≡ v(z) = v(x, y) are real valued functions of z = x + iy.
Example: Consider the function f (z) = z2 for z ∈ C. This function assigns to each
complex number z in C one and only complex value w = z2 . The real and imaginary
parts of f (z) are given by

ℜ( f (z)) = u(x, y) = x2 − y2 ℑ( f (z)) = v(x, y) = 2xy .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Visualizing Complex Functions
In order to investigate a complex function w = f (z), it is necessary to visualize it.
We view z and its image w as points in the complex plane, so that f becomes a
transformation or mapping from D in the z-plane ( xy-plane) on to the range R in the
w-plane (uv-plane).

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Limits of functions

Definition
Let w = f (z) be a complex function of a complex variable z that is defined for all values
of z in some neighborhood of z0 , except perhaps at the point z0 . We say that f has the
limit w0 as z approaches z0 if for each positive number ϵ > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such
that
| f (z) − w0 | < ϵ whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ .
We write it as lim f (z) = w0 .
z→z0

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Geometrically, this says that for each ϵ -neighborhood
Bϵ (w0 ) = {w ∈ C : |w − w0 | < ϵ} of the point w0 in the w-plane, there exists a
deleted or punctured δ-neighborhood B∗δ (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < δ} of z0 in the
z-plane such that f (B∗δ (z0 )) ⊂ Bϵ (w0 ).
In case of functions f : R → R, the variable x approaches the point x0 in only two
directions, either right or left. But, in the complex case, z can approach z0 from
any direction. That is, for the limit lim f (z) to exist, it is required that f (z) must
z→z0
approach the same value no matter how z approaches z0 .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Example 1: If f (z) = 2i/z then examine the existence of lim f (z).
z→i

Example 2: If f (z) = z then examine the existence of lim f (z).

z→(1+2i)

Example 3: If f (z) = ℜ(z)/|z| then examine the existence of lim f (z).

z→0

Example 4: If f (z) = z/z then examine the existence of lim f (z). Also examine the
z→0
existence of lim f (z) if z0 , 0.
z→z0

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Limit of f (z) and Limit of ℜ( f (z)) and ℑ( f (z))
Theorem
Let f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) be a complex function that is defined in some
neighborhood of z0 , except perhaps at z0 = x0 + i y0 . Then

lim f (z) = w0 = u0 + i v0
z→z0

if and only if

lim u(x, y) = u0 and lim v(x, y) = v0 .

(x, y)→(x0 , y0 ) (x, y)→(x0 , y0 )

Example: Let f (z) = z2 . Then, f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) where u(x, y) = x2 − y2 and
v(x, y) = 2xy. Using above theorem, show that

lim z2 = −3 + 4 i .
z→(1+2i)

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Limit of Functions and Algebraic Operations

Theorem
If lim f (z) = A and lim g(z) = B then
z→z0 z→z0

lim k f (z) = k A , where k is a complex constant ,

z→z0

lim ( f (z) + g(z)) = A + B ,

z→z0

lim ( f (z) − g(z)) = A − B ,

z→z0

lim f (z)g(z) = AB ,
z→z0

f (z) A
lim = provided B , 0 .
z→z0 g(z) B

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Point at Infinity ∞ and the Extended Complex Plane

It is convenient to include with the complex number system C one ideal element, called
C = C ∪ {∞} is called the
point at infinity, denoted by the symbol ∞. Then the set b
extended complex plane and satisfies the following properties.
For z ∈ C,
z
z + ∞ = ∞ + z = z − ∞ = ∞, and =0.
∞
For z ∈ C \ {0},
z
z · ∞ = ∞ · z = ∞, and =∞.
0
∞ · ∞ = ∞.
Expressions such as ∞ + ∞, ∞ − ∞, 0 · ∞, ∞/∞ are not defined since they do not lead
to meaningful results.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Riemann Sphere and Stereographic Projection

Join the North Pole N = (0, 0, 1) with the complex number z = x + iy by a straight
line L which pierce the sphere at Z .
The mapping z 7→ Z gives one-to-one correspondence between S \ {N} and C.
As |z| approaches ∞ (along any direction in the plane), the corresponding point Z
on S approaches N .
Associate the North Pole N with the point at infinity ∞.
|z| > 1 7→ Upper hemisphere of S . |z| < 1 7→ Lower hemisphere of S . |z| = 1 7→
Equator of S .
S is called the Riemann sphere. This bijection between S and b C = C ∪ {∞} is
called the Stereographic Projection.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03
Limits involving infinity

Let f : D ⊆ C → C. Let z0 be a limit point of D. Then,

lim f (z) = ∞ if for each ϵ > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
z→z0

0 < |z − z0 | < δ =⇒ | f (z)| > 1/ϵ .

Let f : D ⊆ C → C. Let ∞ be a limit point of D. Then,

lim f (z) = w0 if for each ϵ > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
z→∞

|z| > 1/δ =⇒ | f (z) − w0 | < ϵ .

Let f : D ⊆ C → C. Let ∞ be a limit point of D. Then,

lim f (z) = ∞ if for each ϵ > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
z→∞

|z| > 1/δ =⇒ | f (z)| > 1/ϵ .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Results related Limits involving Infinity

1
1
lim f (z) = ∞ ⇐⇒ lim =0.
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)
2

lim f (z) = w0 ⇐⇒ lim f (1/z) = w0 .

z→∞ z→0

3
1
lim f (z) = ∞ ⇐⇒ lim =0.
z→∞ z→0 f (1/z)

4z2 1 z2 + 1
Exercises: Find (i) lim , (ii) lim , (iii) lim .
z→∞ (z − 1)2 z→1 (z − 1)3 z→∞ z − 1

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Continuous functions

Definition
Let f (z) be a complex function of a complex variable z that is defined for all values of z
in some neighborhood of z0 . We say that f is continuous at z0 if for each ϵ > 0, there
exists a δ > 0 such that

|z − z0 | < δ =⇒ | f (z) − f (z0 )| < ϵ .

Equivalently, f (z) is continuous at the point z0 if lim f (z) exists and is equal to f (z0 ).
z→z0

Let f : D ⊆ C → C. We say that f is continuous in the set D if f is continuous at each

point of D.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Geometrical Interpretation of Continuity

To be continuous at z0 , the function f should map Near by points of z0 in to Near by

points of f (z0 ).
Near by concept is written in terms of neighborhood.

The continuity of f (z) at a point z0 can be interpreted geometrically as

for each ϵ -neighborhood Bϵ ( f (z0 )) = {w ∈ C : |w − f (z0 )| < ϵ} of the point f (z0 ) in the
w-plane, there exists a δ-neighborhood Bδ (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < δ} of z0 in the
z-plane such that the function f (z) maps Bδ (z0 ) inside Bϵ ( f (z0 )).

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Example: Let f (z) = z2 . Then,

lim f (z) = lim z2 = (1 + 2i)2 = −3 + 4 i = f (1 + 2i) .

z→(1+2i) z→(1+2i)

Therefore, the function f (z) is continuous at the point (1 + 2i).

Example: Let f (z) = ℜ(z)/|z| for z , 0 and f (0) = 1. The function f (z) is not
ℜ(z)
continuous at 0, since lim does not exist.
z→0 |z|

Example: Let f (z) = ℜ(z)/|1 + z| for z , 0 and f (0) = 1. The function f (z) is not
ℜ(z)
continuous at 0, since lim = 0 which is not equal to f (0) = 1.
z→0 |1 + z|

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Results on Continuity

Theorem
Let f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) be defined in some neighborhood of z0 = x0 + i y0 . Then, f
is continuous at z0 if and only if u(x, y) and v(x, y) are continuous at (x0 , y0 ).

Theorem
Suppose that the functions f and g are continuous at z0 . Then, the following functions
f (z)
are continuous at z0 : (i) f (z) + g(z), (ii) f (z) − g(z), (iii) f (z)g(z) and (iv) g(z) provided that
g(z0 ) , 0.

Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous at z0 and g(z) is continuous at f (z0 ). Then, the
composition function h = g ◦ f = g( f (z)) is continuous at z0 .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03

Results on Continuity (continuation...)

Theorem
Suppose that f (z) is continuous at z0 . Then, | f (z)| and f (z) are continuous at z0 .

Theorem
Let f : D ⊆ C → C. If D is a connected set and f is continuous in D then the set f (D)
is a connected set. That is, Continuous image of connected set is connected.

Theorem
Let f : D ⊂ C → C. If D is a compact set and f is continuous in D then the set f (D) is
a compact set. That is, Continuous image of compact set is compact. Further | f |
attains its maximum and minimum values in D.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Complex Analysis: Lecture-03