Unruled page

1) Circuit diagram
EXPERIMENTS & ACTIVITIES -2024-2025 2)Model graph
3) Observation
CYCLE - 1 4)Table
5)Calculation
EXPERIMENT-1
OHM’S LAW
AIM: To determine resistivity of two given wires by plotting a graph of potential difference versus
current.
APPARATUS: Battery eliminator, voltmeter, ammeter, key, wires, rheostat and connecting wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Formula:
𝑅𝜋𝑟 2
𝜌=
𝑙
where 𝑅 resistance of the wire, 𝑟- radius of the wire and 𝑙 length of the wire.
Procedure:
1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.
2. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram. While making
connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards the
+ve terminal of the battery.
3. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, if any.
4. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that ammeter and voltmeter are working
properly.
5. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes through the
resistance coil or the resistance wire.
6. Not down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter and current I from ammeter.

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7. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full division readings
not in fractions.
8. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.
9. Take at least six sets of independent observations.
10. Measure the length of the resistance wire using a meter scale.\

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of ammeter = A Least count of voltmeter= V

Range of voltmeter = V Range of ammeter = A
Length of wire-1, 𝑙1 = cm Length of wire-2, 𝑙2 = cm
Radius of wire-1, 𝑟1 =……..mm Radius of wire-2, 𝑟2 =……..mm

WIRE - 1 WIRE - 2
S.No. Voltmeter Ammeter Voltmeter Ammeter
Reading V(V) Reading I (A) Reading V(V) Reading I (A)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Model graph Calculation

Calculation from graph:

∆𝑉
𝑅 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉 − 𝐼 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ =
∆𝐼
𝜋𝑟12
Resistivity of wire 𝜌1 = 𝑅1
𝑙1

𝜋𝑟22
Resistivity of wire 𝜌2 = 𝑅2
𝑙2

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RESULT: Resistivity of wire-1 = …………….. Ωm
Resistivity of wire-2 = ……………. Ωm
Precautions:
1. Current should be passed only during the observation.
2. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
Sources of error:
1. Resistor may get heated and affect the result.
2. Power supply may not be sending constant current.
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EXPERIMENT-2
METER BRIDGE
AIM: To find resistance of given wire using meter bridge.
APPARATUS: Meter bridge, battery eliminator, wire, key, wire, galvanometer, resistance box and
connecting wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

𝑃 𝑅
FORMULA Wheatstone principle =
𝑄 𝑆

where P, Q and R, are standard resistor and S is the unknown resistance.

PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the right between B and C.
Take care that no part of the wire forms a loop.
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left-hand gap between A and B.
4. Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
6. Touch the jockey gently first at the left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.

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7. Not the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite
directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only, then there is some fault in
the circuit.
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer gives zero
deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of T from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the
galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire.
10.Not the position of the null point D (with the help of a Set Square) to know the balancing point
AD= 𝑙.
11. Take at least three sets of observation for each Gap and record your observations.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. To find unknown resistance, X - placed on left gap (X1)

Known Resistance R Length AD, L Length DC, (100-L) 𝐑𝐋

S.No. X1= (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐋) Ω
(Ω) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
Mean X1=

2. To find unknown resistance, X - placed on right gap (X2)

Known Resistance R Length AD, Length DC, (100-L) 𝐑(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐋)

S.No. X2 = Ω
(Ω) L(cm) (cm) 𝐋

1.
2.
3.
Mean X2 =

𝐗 𝟏 +𝐗 𝟐
Mean value of resistance wire 𝑿 = = ……………….. Ω
𝟐

RESULT: Resistance of the given wire 𝑿 = ……………….. Ω

Precautions:
1. Circuit should be on only during the time of observation.
2. Move the jockey gently over the metre bridge wire.
Sources of error:
1. Cells may not be sending constant current.
2. The wire may not have uniform area of cross section.
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EXPERIMENT-3
FIGURE OF MERIT
AIM: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of
merit.
APPARATUS: Galvanometer, cell, 2 resistance boxes, voltmeter, 2 keys and connecting wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORMULA:
The resistance of the given galvanometer is as found by half- deflection method is given by

𝑅𝑆
𝐺=
𝑅−𝑆

Where R is the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and S shunt resistance.
Figure of Merit
𝜀
𝑘=
(𝑅 + 𝐺)𝜃
where 𝜀 is the emf of the cell and 𝜃 the deflection produced with resistance R.
PROCEDURE
1. Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram
2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 ohm) from the resistance box R and insert the key K1 only.
4. Adjust the value of 𝑅 so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale.
5. Note the deflection. Let it be 𝜃.
6. Insert the key K2 also without changing the value of 𝑅, adjust the value of 𝑆, such that the deflection in
the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in a step 5.
7. Note the value of 𝑆.
8. Repeat the experiment for four values of 𝑅 by adjusting 𝑆 every time.
9. Measure the emf 𝜀of the cell.
OBSERVATIONS:
emf of the cell = 𝜺 Volts [ emf is to be observed by connecting a voltmeter across the cell before
connecting it in circuit ]

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To find figure of merit :

Figure of
Deflection in Half- Shunt Galvanometer merit
Resistance R resistance (𝜀)
S.No. galvanometer deflection Resistance
(Ω) 𝑹𝑺 𝑘=
θ θ/2 S (Ω) 𝑮= (Ω) (𝑅 + 𝐺)𝜃
𝑹−𝑺
(Amp/div)
1.

2.

3.

4.

Mean G = 𝑘=
RESULT:
Resistance of the galvanometer G = Ω
Figure of merit of the galvanometer 𝑘 = A/div
Precautions:
1. The deflection θ should be an even number.
2. The value of R should be large as compared to G.
Sources of error:
1. The emf of the cell may not be constant.
2. The plugs of the resistance boxes may not be clean and tight.

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EXPERIMENT-4
FREQUENCY OF AC MAINS
Aim: To find frequency of AC mains with a sonometer.
Theory:

For the stretched string of length L and linear mass density 𝜇 under tension T, fixed at either end, in
𝑐 1 𝑇
its fundamental mode or the first harmonic is given by ν= = √𝜇 .
λ 2𝐿

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For a wire under constant 𝝂 𝒍 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕.
𝝂𝑬 𝒍𝑬 = 𝝂 𝒍
𝝂𝒍
∴ 𝝂𝑬 =
𝒍𝑬
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the sonometer on the table as shown in figure.
2. Put suitable maximum weights in the hanger.
3. Move the wooden bridges outward t include maximum length of wire (AB) between them.
4. Decrease the length of the wire by moving both the bridges equally inwardly.
5. Go on decreasing the length till sonometer wire starts vibrating.
6. Adjust the length for maximum amplitude of vibration.
7. Measure the length of the wire AB between the edges of the two bridges and record in the length
increasing column.
8. Bring the two bridges closer and then adjust the length for maximum amplitude by increasing it.
9. Measure the length and record it in length increasing column.
10. Repeat the experiment with different tuning forks.
Observation:
Weight suspended on the wire, T = N
Resonant length of wire for AC 𝑙𝐸 = ⋯ … … 𝑐𝑚 (using electromagnet)

Resonant length of the tuning fork Frequency of

Frequency of of frequency 𝝂 electromagnet
S.No. the tuning fork Length Length 𝒍2 Mean 𝝂𝒍
𝝂 (Hz) 𝒍1 (cm) (cm) length 𝝂𝑬 =
𝒍 (cm) 𝒍𝑬
1.
480
2.
320
3.
256

Calculations:
Mean 𝜈𝐸 = Hz
Frequency of AC, 𝜈 = 𝜈𝐸 /2
= Hz
Result: Frequency of ac mains = Hz
Precautions:
1. Tip of the electromagnetic pole should be close to the middle of the sonometer wire.
2. After taking each of the observations, circuit should be switched off for a few minutes.
Sources of error:

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1. Friction of the pulley is the main source of error in the experiment. Due to this, the
value of tension acting on the wire is less than that actually applied.
2. AC frequency may not be stable

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ACTIVITY-1
ASSEMBLING COMPONENTS – TERMINAL VOLTAGE
AIM: To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit & measure emf of the cell & study the
variation of terminal voltage of the cell with resistance of the circuit.
APPARATUS: Cell, voltmeter, key, resistance box and connecting wires..
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

When key is open in circuit, there is no current flowing through the circuit. Therefore, R=∞.

Therefore, V = emf of cell = Ecell

𝐸
When cell is closed, the terminal voltage is V = 𝑟
1+( )
𝑅
𝑟 𝑟
As R increases, decreases. Therefore, (1+ ) decreases and v increases
𝑅 𝑅
Therefore, as resistance increases, terminal voltage of cell increases.

MODEL GRAPH

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown. When key is open, note the voltmeter reading as emf of
the cell.
2. Close the key k and change the resistance of resistance box.
3. Note down the reading of voltmeter as resistance changed.
4. Plot a graph between resistance and terminal voltage.

OBSERVATION:
Range of voltmeter = V Least count of voltmeter = V
Emf of the cell = V

S.No. Resistance R (Ω) Voltage V

Result:
1. The emf of the cell = V
2. The variation of voltage with resistance is shown graphically.
Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean, and tight.
2. The switch should be open while not taking readings.

Sources of error:
1. The instruments screws may be loose.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.

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ACTIVITY-2:
CORRECTING WRONG CIRCUIT
Aim: To correct the given wrong circuit.
Apparatus: Battery eliminator, voltmeter, ammeter, key, wire, rheostat and connecting wires.
Observations:
Given wrong circuit :

Corrected circuit:

Result:
The errors in the given wrong circuit were identified and the corrected circuit diagram was drawn
and connected.
=============================================================================

ACTIVITY-3:
MEASURING AC/DC VOLTAGES
Aim: To measure voltage (AC/DC) and check continuity of a given circuit using multimeter.
Apparatus: Step down transformer, multimeter & meter bridge and connecting wires.
Theory: Multimeter- it is a single measuring device acting as an ammeter, voltmeter, and an ohm
meter. It can measure alternating as well as direct current and alternating as well as direct voltage in
addition to resistance.

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PROCEDURE:

A) DC voltage
i. Select a DC source of potential difference 6V (battery or battery eliminator)
ii. Plug the probes, black in negative and red in positive.
iii. Select DC volt, by turning the selector switch to range 10V DC volts.
iv. Touch and press other ends of probes such that red is on battery terminal marked ‘+’ and
black is on the other end.
v. Insert red probe in terminals marked 4V, 2V in succession and record your readings.

B) AC voltage
i. Turn the selector to AC (20 V)
ii. Touch and press the probes. Other ends to two terminals of AC source of potential drop and
note the readings.
iii. Use red probe in terminals 4V and 2V in succession and record your readings.

OBSERVATIONS:

1. AC/DC voltage

DC Voltage reading AC Voltage reading

(V) (V)
S.No.
From DC panel From multimeter From AC panel From multimeter

C) Continuity of given circuit

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i. Set the selector switch to ohm, range MΩ
ii. Touch and press the ends of probes at A and B, full scale deflection indicates continuity.
iii. Similarly check in succession the continuity between terminals B and C and terminals C and D.
iv. In digital electronic multi-meter for continuity test rotor is set to mark 0 and a buzzer sounds
when probes are connected to ends of components tested.

Continuity of circuit:

S.No. Readings taken between Resistance (Ω)

1 AB

2 CD

3 DE

4 EF

RESULT:
AC and DC voltages marked on voltage sources match with voltage measured by multi-
meter.
Precautions:
1. Select the appropriate parameter current, voltage or resistance to be measured with
appropriate range.
2. If range of the parameter is not known, start with maximum.

Sources of error:
1. Parameter to be measured might be chosen wrongly in multi-meter.
2. Least count error in observation.
============================================================================

ACTIVITY-4:
IDENTIFYING COMPONENTS
AIM: To identify p-n diode, a LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
APPARATUS: Multimeter, p-n diode, LED, resistor, capacitor, commutator [ABCD].

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Each element is separated according to number of legs.
2. Current to be passed through it. Note the way it conducts electricity.
3. Identify the element and record your observation.

OBSERVATION:

S.no. Device ,D Observation

1. Resistors Conducts in forward and reverse bias

2. Capacitors Deflection in galvanometer on either sides for short time

3. p-n diode Conducts in one direction, not in reverse bias

Conducts in forward bias with glow and does not conduct in
4. LED reverse bias

RESULT: The given circuit elements have been identified.

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ACTIVITY-5:
GLASS SLAB – REFRACTION AND LATERAL DEVIATION
Aim: To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.
Apparatus:
Glass slab, drawing board, white drawing sheet, drawing pins, pencil, eraser, protractor, metre scale.

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Ray diagram:

Theory:
When a ray of light (PQ) is incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards the normal
because refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium. The refracted ray (QR) travelling along
a straight line and incident on the face DC of slab, bends away from the normal because refraction
takes place from rarer to denser medium. The ray (RS) out through the face DC is called the emergent
ray.

Procedure
1. Take a drawing sheet and fix it on a drawing board with the help of drawing pins or adhesive
tape.
2. Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary
ABCD.
3. Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle I with the normal.
PQ will represent an incident ray.
4. Fix two pins at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distance 5cm or more between them.
5. See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 (1cm or more
apart) such that these two pins cover the images of first two pins, all being along a straight
line.
6. Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to represent emergent
ray. Join QR to represent refracted ray.
7. Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be equal to angle i.

8. Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU perpendicular to RS. TU measures lateral

displacement d.
9. Now take more sets for different angles of incidence and measure the lateral displacements.
10. Make small circles around each pin-pricks on the drawing sheet.
11. Start with value of 20ᵒ for <i and repeat the process for 25ᵒ and 30ᵒ.

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Observations:

Angle of LateraI deviation

S.No. Angle of incidence (i)
emergence (e) (d cm)

1 300

2 450

3 600

Result:
1. The ray of light changes its path emerging out of glass which proves that refraction happens
when light travels from one medium to another. The emerging ray is parallel to the incident ray
i.e < i = < e.
2. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i)).
Precautions:
1. The pins should be fixed vertically on the drawing board.
2. It must be ensured that pins 1 and 2 are in straight line. Similarly, the pins 3 and 4 are in a
straight line.
Sources of Error:
1. Measurement of angles may not be accurate.
2. Glass slab may not have uniform thickness.

============================================================================
ACTIVITY-6
IMAGE FORMED BY CONVEX LENS
Aim: To verify the nature and size of image formed by convex lens on a screen by using a candle and
a screen.
Apparatus: Convex lens, meter scale, match box

Theory: From lens formula

1 1 1
- =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
When
• 𝑢 = ∞, 𝑣=𝑓

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• 𝑢 = −2𝑓, 𝑣 = 2𝑓
• 𝑢 = −𝑓, 𝑣= ∞
• 𝑢 > (−𝑓), 𝑣 = −𝑣𝑒 (Image becomes virtual)

Ray Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Find rough focal length of convex lens by usual method.
2. Mount the convex lens in holder in central upright and keep it in the middle of the optical
bench.
3. Mount the cardboard screen on another upright and keep it in the middle of the optical
bench.

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4. Adjust heights so that the inverted image of erect flame of burning candle is formed on
screen. Move the screen to make image sharp. The screen will be nearly at the focus of
the convex lens.
5. As the burning candle is moved towards the lens on one side. The screen must be moved
away from the lens on the other side, for getting sharp flame image. The inverted image
site increases
6. When the position of the candle is at 2f from the lens, the screen is also at same distance
on the other side. The image size will be equal to actual flame size
7. When the flame at f, a blurred image is obtained because image lies at infinite
8. Note the reading by placing the candle flame at different position

Observations:
Rough focal length of the lens 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑚

Size of the
S.No. Position of the object Position of the image Nature of the image
image
1 Infinity At F Real and inverted Diminished

2 Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Real and inverted Diminished

3 At 2F At 2F Real and inverted Same size

4 Between F and 2F Beyond 2F Real and inverted Enlarged

5 At F At infinity Real and inverted Enlarged

Between F and Optic On the same side of the
6 Virtual and Erect Enlarged
centre O objecct

Result: The change in position, nature and size of image is according to theoretical prediction.
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