PHYSICS OBSERVATION

BOOKLET: 2023-2024
GRADE 12

NAME: …………………………………………

GROUP: …………………………………………

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RECORD WORK

The record to be submitted by the students at the time of EXAMINATION

must include a record of 8 Experiments and 6 Activities.

➢ The experiments and activities are to be performed by the students.

Evaluation Scheme: Practical Examination

Two experiments to be performed by students at the time 7 + 7 Marks
of Examination – one from each section
Practical record [experiments and activities] 5 Marks
One activity from any section 3 Marks
Investigatory Project 3 Marks
Viva on experiments and activities 5 Marks
Total (Max Marks) 30 Marks
DURATION OF THE EXAMINATION 3 Hours

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INDEX FOR EXPERIMENTS
Experiment Date and Day of the
Name of the Experiment
No Experiment
SECTION A
1. Verification of Ohm’s law

2. Metre Bridge I – Unknown

Resistance
3. Meter Bridge II- Verification of laws
of combination of resistors
4. Galvanometer - Figure of Merit
SECTION B
5. Focal length of convex lens

6. Angle of minimum deviation for a

given prism
7. Refractive Index of a Glass Slab
using a Travelling Microscope
8. PN Junction Diode VI
Characteristics
INDEX FOR ACTIVITIES
Activity Name of the Activity Date and day of
No activity
1 Assembling electrical components
2 Correction of a given circuit
3 Potentiometer – Variation of
Potential drop with length
4 Image formation by concave mirror
and convex lens
5 Refraction through a glass slab
6 Diffraction of Light

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Experiment: 1

Circuit Diagram:

Graph

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Section A
Experiment No: 1
Date: ………………..
VERIFICATION OF OHM’S LAW
Aim:

To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph between

potential difference versus current

Apparatus Required:

Coil, Battery Eliminator, Milliammeter, Voltmeter, Rheostat and Wires.

Theory:

Ohm’s law states that the current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the
temperature, mechanical strain and other physical conditions are kept
constant.

Formula:

R = V/I (Ω)

R = Resistance in Ω

V = Voltage in V

I = Current in A

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as shown.

2. The rheostat is adjusted so that current through the coil varies.
3. The ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted.
4. Each time the current varies, the voltage across A varies. The ammeter and
voltmeter readings are tabulated.
5. A graph is plotted between voltage and current. The slope of the straight
line gives resistance.

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Observation Table:

Voltmeter Reading
Ammeter Reading (I) Resistance
Sl. No. (V) (Potential
(Current in A) R = V/I (ohms)
Difference in Volts)

Mean Resistance, R =

Diameter of the wire

Sl.
PSR (x10-3 m) CSR (x10-3 m) TR (x10-3 m)
No.
1

Average diameter

𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫
Radius = = ……………………….m
𝟐

Specific resistance, ρ = πr2R/l =

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6. The unknown resistance is calculated as R = V/I.
7. Resistivity of the wire, ρ = AR/l where the Area of cross-section of the wire
is found using a screw gauge and the length ‘l’ of the wire is measured.

Precautions (to be taken):

1. Less current must be passed and connections must be tight.

2. Care should be taken when connecting ammeter and voltmeter as this

connects polarities.

3. Zero error in measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter, metre scale)

must be taken cognizance of and should be eliminated

Sources of Error

1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.

2. The length of the resistance wire measured should be between one terminal
of voltmeter and the other. The lengths of ends wound around the terminals of
voltmeter, if included, would give error in measured length.

Result

Resistance per unit length of the given coil is

1. By calculation is:…………………… Ω/cm

2. By graph is:…….……………………… Ω/cm

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Experiment: 2

Circuit Diagram:

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Section A
Experiment No: 2
Date: ………………..
METRE BRIDGE I
Aim:

To determine the resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using a metre

bridge.

Apparatus Required:

Metre bridge, standard resistance box, jockey, galvanometer, unknown

resistance and wires.

Theory: It works on the principle of BALANCED Wheatstone’s Bridge.

Formula:
Rl
x= (Ω)
(100−l)

x = Resistance in (Ω)

l = Balancing length (m)

R = Known resistance (Ω)

ρ = πr2x/L (Ωm)

ρ = Specific resistance or resistivity (Ωm)

r = Radius of wire (m)

L = Length of wire (m)

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Observation Table:

Resistance
Box
Sl. l [100 – l] 𝐑𝐥
Resistance x= (Ω)
No. x10-2 m x10-2 m (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐥)
(R) (Ω)

6
Average Resistance xavg

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Procedure:

1. Make connections as shown. Include the known resistance in the right gap.
Move the jockey from A → B and observe zero deflection. Find the
balancing length.
2. Repeat using different values of resistance i.e., 2 Ω, 4 Ω, 6 Ω, ..., 12 Ω.
3. Tabulate the readings and calculate resistance of wire.

Precautions (to be taken):

1. The jockey must be pressed gently.

2. Connections must be tight.

Sources of error:

1. The wire might be of non-uniform diameter.

2. There might be backlash error in the screw gauge.
3. Effect of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting screws, may affect
the measurement.

Result

The unknown resistance of the coil is ……………………………………..Ω

The specific resistance of the material of the wire is
……………………………………….. Ωm.

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Experiment: 3

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Section A
Experiment No: 3
Date: ……………………..
METRE BRIDGE – COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
Aim:

To verify the laws of combination (series / parallel) of resistances using a

metre bridge.

Apparatus Required:

Metre bridge, battery eliminator, jockey, galvanometer and connecting wires.

Theory: It works on the principle of BALANCED Wheatstone’s Bridge.

Formula:

Resistors in series: RS = R1 + R2 in Ω
Resistors in parallel: RP = R1R2 / (R1 + R2) in Ω

Procedure:

1. Mark the resistances as R1 and R2.

2. Place the resistance R1 in the left gap of metre bridge and resistance box in
the right gap as shown in the figure. Determine its value.
3. Repeat the observations for resistance R2 and determine its value.
4. Now connect the two coils R1 and R2 in series as shown in the figure in the
left gap of the metre bridge and find the resistance of the combination RS.
5. Connect the two coils R1 and R2 in parallel as shown in the figure and find
the resistance of the parallel combination RP.

Precautions (to be taken):

1. Move the jockey gently on the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire
in contact for a long time.

2. Connections must be neat and tight.

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Observation:

Resistance
Length Resistance Mean
Resistance Sl. from the Length of coil =
(100 – l) Resistance
Coil No. Resistance ( l ) cm 𝐑𝐥
cm (Ω) (Ω)
Box R (Ω) (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝐥)
1
R1 only R1
2

1
R2 only R2
2

1
R1 and R2
RS
in series
2

1
R1 and R2
RP
in parallel
2

Calculations

i) In series:
Experimental value of RS = ……………………………… ohm
Theoretical value of RS = R1 + R2 = ……………………………… ohm

ii) In parallel:
Experimental value of RP = ……………………………… ohm
Theoretical value of RP = R1R2 / (R1 + R2) = ……………………………… ohm

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Sources of Error:

1. The screws of the instrument may be loose.

2. The wire may not be uniformly thick throughout.

Result:

For series connection:

Experimental value of RS = ……………………………… Ω
Theoretical value of RS = ……………………………..……Ω

For parallel connection:

Experimental value of RP = ……………………………… Ω
Theoretical value of RP = …………………………….……Ω

Within limits of experimental error, the experimental and theoretical values of

RS and RP are the same. Hence law of resistances in series and parallel is
verified.

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Experiment: 4

K1

S
K2

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Section A
Experiment No: 4
Date: ………………..
GALVANOMETER – FIGURE OF MERIT
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method
and to find its figure of merit.

Apparatus Required:

A Weston type galvanometer, a battery of two cells, two (5000Ω and 500Ω)
resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat and connecting wires.

Formulae Used:

1. The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by the half deflection

method
G = R x S / (R – S) (Ω)
Where R is the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and S
is the shunt resistance.
2. The figure of merit
K = E / (R+G) θ (A/div)
Where E is the e.m.f of the cell and is the deflection produced with
resistance R.

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. See that plugs of the resistance are tight.
3. Take out the plug marked 5000Ω from the resistance box R and insert the
key K1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and
within the scale.
5. Note the deflection. Let it be θ.

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Observation:

Figure of
Galvanometer Merit
Deflection in
Shunt Half resistance K=
Sl. Resistance the
Resistance Deflection 𝐄
No. R (Ω) Galvanometer
S (Ω) (θ/2) 𝐑𝐒 (𝐑+𝐆)𝛉
θ G= (Ω)
𝐑−𝐒
(amp/div)
1

MEAN K =

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6. Insert the key K2 also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value
of S, such that the deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the
value obtained in step 5, i.e., θ/2.
7. Note the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and
adjusting S every time.
E
9. The figure of merit is found out using the formula K =
(R+G)θ

Precautions (to be taken):

1. Connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f of cell or battery should be constant.

Sources of error:

1. The screws of the instrument may be loose.

2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be close.
3. The e.m.f of the battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

Result

The resistance of the given galvanometer by half deflection method is

……………… Ω.

The figure of merit K = ……………………..A/div.

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Experiment No: 5

Ray Diagram - Convex Lens

Convex Lens

F2 2F2
B’
B
2F1 F1

A’

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Section B
Experiment No: 5
Date: ………………..
CONVEX LENS
Aim:
To find focal length of a given convex lens by u-v method and (1/u – 1/v)
method.
Apparatus Required:
Convex lens, lens stand, illuminated (light box) wire gauge, white screen,
meter scale.

Formula:
F = uv/(u-v)
Where
f = focal length of convex lens
u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.
Note: According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive
value. Hence, f comes positive.

Procedure:

1. The rough focal length is determined using distance method.

To set the lens
2. The holder is clamped with the lens in a fixed upright and the upright is
kept at 50 cm mark.
3. The lens is adjusted such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the
length of the optical bench.
4. The upright is kept fixed in this position throughout.
To set the object needle
5. The thin optical needle is taken as object needle (O). It is mounted in the
outer laterally moveable upright near zero end.
6. The object needle upright is moved and clamped at a distance (in full cm)
nearly 1.5 times the obtained rough focal length of the lens.
7. The height of the object needle is adjusted to make its tip lie on horizontal
line through the optical centre of the lens.

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Observation Table:

Position of Distance
Sl. Object Lens Image OA OC (v) 1/u 1/v
No. needle O needle (u)
A C

Observations
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = …….cm
Observed focal length of the lens =…….cm

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8. The position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright is
noted.
To set the image needle
9. With one eye closed, see with the other open eye from the other end of the
optical bench. An inverted and enlarged image of the object needle will be
seen. The tip of the image must lie in the middle of the lens.
10. The thick optical needle (image needle) is mounted in the fourth upright
near the other end of the optical bench.
11. The height of the image needle is adjusted so that its tip is seen in line with
the tip of the image when seen with right open eye.
12. The eye is moved towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip
and the image needle tip have parallax.
13. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.
14. The position of the index mark on base of the image needle upright is
noted.
15. The position of the index marks on the base of upright of the lens, the
object needle and the image needle are noted in the table against observation-
2.
16. Move object needle upright towards mirror in steps of 1 cm to get
observation 2 and 1.
Repeat the experiment.
17. Move object needle upright away from mirror (from position of
observation 2) in steps
18. The position of the index marks on the base of upright of the lens, the
object needle and the image needle are noted in the table against observation
2.

Calculations using graphical method:

‘u-v’ graph
A graph is drawn taking ‘u’ along x axis and ‘v’ along y axis. Choosing the same
scales, points are plotted for different values of ‘u’ and ‘v’ and a smooth curve
is drawn. The bisector of the angle is drawn. This meets the curve at point C.
Perpendiculars from C to the axes are drawn. The lengths OA and OB are equal
and equal to 2f. Hence f is calculated.
‘1/u-1/v’ graph
A graph of ‘1/u’ along x axis and ‘1/v’ along y axis is drawn. This is a straight
line. The intercepts on x and y axes gives 1/f.

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Graphs:

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Precautions (to be taken):

1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted
vertically.

2. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image formed will
not be distinct.

3. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image needle.

4. An error may arise in the observations if the top of the optical bench is not
horizontal and similarly if the tips of pins and optical centre of the lens are not
at the same horizontal level.

5. The image and object needles should not be interchanged during the
performance of the experiment, as this may cause change in index corrections
for object distance and image distance.

6. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the tip of the
image needle and must not overlap. This should be ensured while removing
the parallax.

7. The general instructions to be followed in all optical bench experiments (as

given in the description of optical bench) must be taken care of.

8. The corrected values of the distances u and v must be put in the formula for
calculating f and then a mean of f should be taken. Calculations for f must not
be made using the mean values of u and v

Sources of error:

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

3. If the knitting needle or index rod for finding index correction is not sharp
like a needle, its length may not be accurately found on scale

Result:

The focal length of the given convex lens is ……………………………….

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Experiment No: 6

Diagram:

Section B

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Experiment No: 6
Date: ……………………..
REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS PRISM
Aim:

To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a

graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Apparatus Required:
Drawing board, white sheet, prism, drawing pins, pencils, half meter scale,
office pins, graph paper and protractor.
Theory:

The angle between the original direction of incident ray PQ (produced

forward) and the direction of emergent ray RS (produced backward) is the
angle of deviation δ.

The minimum value of angle of deviation is called angle of minimum

deviation, Dm.

r+r′=A

δ = (i – r) + (e – r ′ ) = i + e – A

At the position of the prism for minimum deviation Dm, the light ray passes
through the prism symmetrically, i.e. parallel to the base so that when δ = Dm, i
= e which implies r = r’.

Procedure:

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board.

2. Place the prism on it and trace the outline triangle ABC.
3. Remove the prism and mark a point E on face AB. Draw the normal NN’ to
AB at E.
4. Draw straight line PE making the angle 30.
5. Mark point P and Q 10 cm apart from each other on the line PE.

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Observation Table

Angle of Deviation
Sl. No. Angle of Incidence (i)
(D)

1 300

2 400

3 500

4 600

5 700

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6. Put the prism back on the outline ABC.
7. Fix pins P1, P2 vertically on P and Q atleast 10 cm apart.
8. Look at the images of P1, P2 through the face AC and place pins P3, P4 on the
emergent directions.
9. Remove the pins and encircle their pricks.
10. Join the points and extend the line to meet the face AC at F.
11. Repeat the experiment for angles 400, 500, 600 and 700 and tabulate the
readings.
12. A graph is plotted between the angle of incidence and the angle of
deviation. The angle of minimum deviation is obtained from the graph.

Precautions (to be taken):

1. Angle of incidence should be between 20 and 80.

2. The pins must be fixed vertically.
3. The distance between 2 pins should be 10 cm.

Sources of error

1. If the three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are not
equal, then A + δ ≠ i + e

2. There may be an error in measuring the values of the angles.

Result

i – D graph indicates that

• As angle of incidence increases, angle of deviation decreases, attains a

minimum and then increases.
• Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = …………….

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Experiment No: 7

Diagram:

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Section B
Experiment No: 7
Date: …………………….

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A GLASS SLAB

Aim:

To determine refractive index of a glass slab, using a travelling microscope.

Apparatus Required:

A glass slab, a travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.

Theory:
Real Depth
Refractive index, µ =
Apparent Depth

Procedure:

Adjustment of travelling microscope

1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a window so that
sufficient light falls on it.
2. Adjust the levelling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes
horizontal.
3. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye piece so that
the cross wires are clearly visible.
4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope.

Other steps
Make a black ink cross mark on the base of the microscope. The mark will
serve as point P.
5. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P, so that there is
no parallax between the cross-wires and the image of the mark P.
6. Note the main scale and vernier scale readings (R1) on the vertical scale.

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Observation Table:

Vernier constant (Least Count) for vertical scale of microscope = ……………….

cm

Reading on vertical scale when

Refractive
microscope is focused on Real Apparent
Index
Cross- thickness thickness
Sl. Lycopodium n=
Cross-mark mark with
No. powder
without slab slab (R3 – R1) (R3 – R2) 𝐑𝟑 − 𝐑𝟏
R1 cm cm cm
R3 cm 𝐑𝟑 − 𝐑𝟐
R2 cm
1

𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3
Mean, n =
3

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7. Place the glass slab of least thickness over the mark P.
8. Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image P1 of the cross-
mark.
9. Note the readings (R2) on the vertical scale.
10. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of the
slab.
11. Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the surface of the
slab.
12. Note the reading (R3) on the vertical scale.
13. Repeat the above steps with other glass slab of more thicknesses.
14. Record observations in the tabular column.

Precautions (to be taken):

1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed.

2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid back
lash error.

Sources of Error:

1. The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.

2. The lycopodium powder layer on the glass slab might be thick.

Result

The refractive index of the material of the glass slab is found to be a constant
and is equal to ………………

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Experiment No: 8

Forward

Potential Divider

V
m
A

Reverse Bias

Potential Divider

V
µ
A

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Section B
Experiment No: 8
Date: ……………………….

PN JUNCTION DIODE – VI CHARACTERISTICS

Aim:

To draw the I-V characteristics curve for a P – N junction diode in forward

bias and reverse bias conditions.

Apparatus Required:

A P–N Junction diode, connecting wires, microammeter, milliammeter,

voltmeter and rheostat.

Theory:

Forward bias characteristics

The junction is said to be forward biased when the p-section of the diode is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-section of the
diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
The diffusion of electrons and holes into the depletion region decreases its
width. Effective resistance across the p-n junction decreases and the diode
conducts.

Reverse bias characteristics

The junction is said to be reverse biased when the p-section of the diode is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the p-section of the
diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. With an increase in
the voltage, there is a small change in the current but the reverse current
increases to a higher value with an increase in the voltage.

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Observations:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Range of ammeter: Range of ammeter:
Range of voltmeter: Range of voltmeter:
Least count of ammeter: Least count of ammeter:
Least count of voltmeter: Least count of voltmeter:
Zero error in ammeter: Zero error in ammeter:
Zero error in voltmeter: Zero error in voltmeter:

Forward Bias

Ammeter Reading (I) Voltmeter Reading (V)

Sl. No.
mA Volts
1

10

11

12

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Procedure:

Connect the apparatus as shown. Adjust the rheostat (knob) so that the
voltage V is increased from zero to some maximum value and record the
corresponding reading of the ammeter. Next the apparatus is connected in
such a way that the diode is reverse biased. Choose appropriate range of
micro-ammeter and voltmeter. Once again adjust the rheostat as earlier. Plot
graph of V and I for forward as well as reverse bias.

Precautions (to be taken):

1. The voltmeter and ammeter of appropriate least count and range should be
selected.
2. The zero error if any of the instruments should be taken into account.
3. The battery connections to P-N junction diode terminals should be
checked.
4. Very high voltages should be avoided as it will damage diode.
5. The polarities of ammeter and voltmeter should be reversed such that their
positive terminals are connected to negative of battery.

Sources of Error:

1. The power supply may not send a constant current throughout the
experiment.
2. The ammeter/ voltmeter and diode are not ideal and draw current.

Result

The V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode was studied.

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Reverse Bias

Ammeter Reading (I) Voltmeter Reading (V)

Sl. No.
μA Volts
1

10

11

12

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PLOTTING GRAPH

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ACTIVITIES

Activity: #1

Circuit Diagram:

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Activity No: #1
Date: ………………..

ASSEMBLING OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

Aim:

To assemble the components of the given electrical circuit.

Materials Required:

A voltmeter, an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one-way

key, resistance, connecting wires.

Procedure:

i. The apparatus is arranged as shown in the circuit diagram.

ii. The ends of the connecting wire are cleaned with sand paper to remove
the insulation if any.
iii. Neat and tight connections are made according to the circuit diagram.
While making connections, it is ensured that the positive terminals of
the voltmeter and ammeter are connected to the positive terminal of the
battery.
iv. Voltmeter is connected in parallel and ammeter is connected in series

Result:

Thus, the given electric components are assembled.

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Activity: #2

Given Circuit Diagram that is wrong:

Corrected Circuit Diagram:

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Activity No: #2
Date: ………………..
CORRECTION OF A GIVEN CIRCUIT
Aim:

(i) To draw a diagram of a given open circuit consisting of atleast a battery,

resistor, key, ammeter and voltmeter.
(ii) To mark the components which are not connected in proper order.
(iii) To correct the circuit and circuit diagram.

Apparatus:

Voltmeter, ammeter, battery, rheostat, one way key, wires.

Procedure:

i. Open circuit diagram in which components are not in proper order is

given.
ii. Make sure ammeter and rheostat are connected in series and voltmeter
in parallel to the resistor.

Result:

The given circuit has been corrected.

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Activity: #3

Circuit Diagram:

Key

Battery Rheostat

l J

V H.R

Observation Table:

Sl. Length of the Voltmeter reading ( v ) Ratio K = V/l

No potentiometer wire (V) (V/m)
(l )( X 10-2 m )

1 50

2 100

3 150

4 200

5 250

6 300

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Activity No: #3
Date: ………………..
POTENTIOMETER
Aim:

To study the variation in potential drop with length for a wire for a steady
current.

Apparatus:

Potentiometer, battery, rheostat, voltmeter, key, jockey, connecting wires,

ammeter.

Theory:

For a potentiometer wire of uniform material density and thickness carrying

steady current, potential drop V α l where l is the length of the wire.

Procedure:

i. Connect the positive pole of the battery to end A of the potentiometer

and negative pole through a key, ammeter and a rheostat to end B.
ii. Connect the voltmeter to A and a jockey to it.
iii. Touch the jockey at end B of the potentiometer.
iv. Close the key and set the rheostat such that the voltmeter gives full
deflection.
v. Touch the jockey at marks every 50 cm on the wire. Note the voltmeter
reading.

Result:

The ratio V/l is a constant and is called potential gradient of the wire.

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Activity:#4

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Activity No: #4

Date: ………………..
CONCAVE MIRROR and CONVEX LENS
Aim:

To study the nature and size of the image formed by a concave mirror and a
convex lens for different object positions.

Apparatus:

Source box, concave mirror, convex lens, white screen, Mirror stand, metre
scale.

Theory:

The position, nature and size of the image of an object formed by a concave
mirror changes with the position of the object. The reflection of light rays by a
concave mirror obeys the laws of reflection.

A lens is a transparent medium bounded by two spherical refracting surfaces.

The refraction of light rays through a lens obeys the laws of refraction.

I Procedure: Concave Mirror

i. Find the rough focal length of the mirror using distant object method.
ii. Fix the given concave mirror to a mirror holder and keep it at a position,
say at F.
iii. Arrange a white screen and adjust it to get a clear image.
iv. Note the image position.
v. Repeat the step for the object at ∞, beyond 2F, 2F, between 2F and F.
Record the observations.

Result:

The nature and size of image for different object positions were studied for a
concave mirror.

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Sl. No. Object Position Image Position Nature of the Image

1 At Infinity On the Focal Plane Inverted, Real and

highly diminished

2 Beyond C Between C and F Inverted, Real and

diminished

3 At C At C Inverted, Real and

same size.

4 Between C and F Beyond C Inverted, Real and

enlarged/magnified
Inverted, Real and
5 At F At infinity highly
enlarged/magnified

6 Between F and P Behind the mirror Erect, Virtual and

magnified.

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Uses of concave mirrors:

1. Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, searchlights and

headlights of vehicles to get powerful parallel beams of light.
2. They are used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
3. Dentists use concave mirrors to view large images of the teeth of the
patients.
4. Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight in order to
produce heat in the solar furnaces.

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Ray Diagrams:

Observation Table:

Sl. No. Object Position Image Position Nature of the Image

Inverted, Real and highly
1 At Infinity On the Focal Plane
diminished/reduced
2 Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Inverted, Real and diminished
3 At 2F At 2F Inverted, Real and same size.
4 Between 2F and F Beyond 2F Inverted, Real and enlarged/magnified
Inverted, Real and highly
5 At F At infinity
enlarged/magnified
6 On the same side of the
Between F and O Erect, Virtual and magnified.
lens.

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II. Procedure: Convex Lens

vi. Find the rough focal length of the lens using distant object method.
vii. Fix the given convex lens to a lens holder and keep it at a position, say at
F.
viii. Arrange a white screen and adjust it to get a clear image.
ix. Note the image position.
x. Repeat the step for the object at ∞, beyond 2F, 2F, between 2F and F.
Record the observations.

Result:

The nature and size of image for different object positions were studied.

Uses of Convex Lens:

1. Magnifying glasses
2. It is used in spectacles to correct the defect in vision called
hypermetropia (far sightedness)
3. Cameras
4. Microscopes

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Activity: #5

Diagram:

N1
Incident ray
P

Air : Rarer
Medium i
A B
Q

N2

Glass: Denser N3
Medium

D C
R
e
Air : Rarer
d
Medium Original
Incident Ray
S Direction
N4
Emergent Ray

d → Lateral Displacement/ Lateral Shift

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Activity No: #5
Date: ………………..
REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS SLAB

Aim:

To study refraction and measure the lateral displacement of a ray of light

passing through a glass slab for an angle of incidence.

Apparatus:

Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins,
protractor.

Theory:

When a ray of light is incident on a parallel faced glass slab, it emerges in the
same direction as the incident ray. It only suffers lateral displacement,
proportional to the slab thickness ‘t’.

Procedure:

i. Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board using drawing pins. Take
a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and
mark its boundary ABCD. Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and a line
PQ making an angle ∟i with the normal. PQ represents the incident ray.
ii. Fix 2 pins at points P1 and P2 on PQ at 10cm from each other. See their
images through the face DC and fix 2 more pins P3 and P4 such that all
the 4 points seem to be on a straight line. Remove the glass slab.
iii. Draw a line RS through points P3 and P4 to represent the emergent ray.
QR represents refracted ray.
iv. Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU⊥RS. TU measures lateral
displacement ‘d’.

Result:

The lateral displacement was found to be 1.5 cm, for i = 450

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Activity: #6

A fine slit made by using two razor blades, one glass plate and a piece of black paper.

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Activity No: #6
Date: ………………..
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
Aim:

To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

Apparatus:
Two razor blades, one adhesive tape/cello-tape, source of light (electric bulb/
laser pencil), a piece of black paper, two glass plates
Theory:
When a beam of light passes through a fine opening (aperture) or around a
sharp obstacle, it bends around corners of the obstacle/aperture. The light
beam spreads and penetrates into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle.
This phenomenon of bending of light around fine openings/obstacles is called
diffraction.
Procedure:

1. A fine, single slit is made using razor blades. A black paper is fixed on the
top of a glass plate. A narrow slit is cut in the central part of the black paper.
Two razor blades are placed, side by side, quite close to each other over this
slit as shown in the figure.
2. A glowing clear electric lamp preferably with a straight filament (or a laser
pencil) is placed at sufficient distance (about 4 to 8m) behind the fine slit
between the two sharp edges of the razor blades.
3. Alternatively, the slit is placed about 0.5m from the wall and the source of
light at a distance of about 15-20 cm behind the slit. The light falling on the
wall is observed.
4. The observations of steps 2 and 3 are repeated with a laser pencil. The
changes observed are noted down.
Result:

Light waves incident on very fine apertures (openings) bend around corners
and exhibit phenomenon of diffraction.

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