PHYSICS PRACTICAL

EXPERIMENT 1
Aim: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus crrent.
Apparatus: A metallic conductor (coil or a resistance wire), a battery, one way key, a voltmeter and an ammeter of
appropriate range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper, a scale.

Formulae Used: The resistance (R) of the given wire(resistance coil) is obtained by Ohm's Law=R
Where, V :Potential difference between the ends of the given resistance coil. (Conductor)
I: Curent flowing through it.
R
If lis the length of resistance wire, then resistance per cm of the wire -
Observation:
(i) Range:
Range of given voltmeter =3 v
Range of given ammeter = 500 mA

Battery

Aheostat

Fig. 1.1
(ü) Least count:

Least count of voltmeter = 0.05v

Least count of ammeter= 10 mA

(ii) Zero error:
Zero error in ammeter, e =0
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 = 0
Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:
Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading, V (v)
Sr. No. Observed Value Observed Value
1 50 500 mA 16 16x0.05=0.8 1.62
2 35 350 mA 11 0.55 1.572
3 32 320 mA 10 0.50 1.562
4 19 190 mA 6 0.30 1.58 2
10 100 mA 3 0.15 1.5 2
Mean R = 1.56
Length of resistance wire: 28 cm
Graph between potential difference & current:

Scale: X- axis : 1cm =0.1V of potential difference

Y- axis: 1 cm =0.I A of current
The graph comes out to be a straight line.

Result: It is found that the ratio V/I is constant, hence current voltage relationship is established i.e. Vcl or Ohm's
Law is verified.
Unknown resistance per cm of given wire =5.57 x 10*Q cm' Potential Diference (V) ..>

Precautions: Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.

The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
Source of Error: Rheostat may have high resistance.
The instrument screws may be loose.
EXPERIMENT 2
Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using Whetstone's bridge (meter bridge) & hence determine the specific
resistance of the material.
Apparatus: A meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a laclanche cell, a jockey, a one
way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, meter scale, set square, connecting wires and sandpaper.
R.B.
Resistance Box D
Resistarnce)

(a Gavanometer

0 10 20 30 40 50 60/ 70 80 90 1Í0

{1004)
K
Fig. 2.1 Circuit Diagram - Meter Bridge
Formulae Used:
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by:
X= (100-I) xR
Where,

R=known resistance placed in left gap.

X=Unknown resistance in right gap of meter bridge.
Elength of meter bridge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm)

XrD'
(ü) Specific resistance (p) of the material of given wire is given p = 4L
Where,
D: Diameter of given wire L: Length of given wire.
Observation Table for length (/) & unknown resistance, X:
Resistance from Unknown Resistance
Sr. Length Length
No.
resistance box AB =Icm BC=(100-1) cm X=R. 0-Do
R (ohm)
2 41 59 2.87
2 4 60 40 2.66
3 6 69 31 2.69
4 8 76 24 2.52
Table for diameter (D) of the wire:
Grcular Scale Reading
Observed diameter
Sr. Linear Scale No. of circular
Value D =N+nx L.C.
No. Reading (N) mm Scale divisions
nx (LC.) mm mm
coinciding (n)
34 0.34 0.34
2 35 0.35 0.35
3 0 36 0.36 0.36
4 35 0.35 0.35
Observations:
Least count of screw gauge: 0.001 cm
Pitch of screw gauge: 0.1 cm
Total no. of divisions on circular scale: 100
Pitch
Least Count =
No. of divisions on circular scale
..LC= 0.001 cm
Length of given wire, L= 25cm
Calculation:
For unknown resistance, X:
X, +X, tX;
Mean X=
4 +A4=2.6802
Mean diameter, D=
D, +D, +D, +D, =0.035 cm
4

Specific Resistance, p= X. =1.03x 102cm

4L

Result: Value of unknown resistance = 2.68S2

Specific resistance of material of given wire =1.03 ×10N cm
Precautions: All plugs in resistance box should be tight. Plug in key, K should be inserted only while taking
observations.
Sources of Error: Plugs may not be clean.
Instrument screws maybe loose.
EXPERIMENT -3
Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series & parallel) of resistances using meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge)
Apparatus: A meter bridge, laclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set
square, sand paper and connecting wires.
(0) In serles

"uluuLuplluuaLl
-(100

Fig. 3.1 Serles combination of resistances

(u) in parallel

(100-1)

Fig. 3.2 Paralll combination of resistancos

Observations: Table for length () & unknown resistance (r):

Resistance
from Length Resistance Mean
Resistant Length BC= 100-!
Obs. No. resistance 100-/ Resistant
Coil AB = I(em) (cm) r= R
box, (ohm)
R (ohm)
1 0.5 3 65 0.92
I; only 2 1.0 43 57 132 1.24
50 50 |
0.5 30 70 1.16
I; Only 2 1.0 38 62 1.63 1.51
3 5 46 54 1.76
1 1.3 34 66 2.52
, & r in 2.2 45 55 2.68 2.72
series
3 3.5 46 2.97
2 75 25 0.67
rj &r in 2 82 18 0.66 0.66
parallel 86 14 |0.65
Calculations:

!
(i) In Series: Experimental value of R_ = 2.72 S2
Theoretical value of R_ =I + F=2.75 Q
(iü) In parallel: Experimental value of Rp = 0.66 S2
Theoretical value of Rp = 12-=0.682

Result: Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of R_ are same. Hence the law of
resistance in series i.e. R_ I + is verified. (1) Within limits of experimnental error, experimental & theoretical
values of Rp are same. Hence law of resistances in parallel i.e. Rs = 2-is verified.
Precautions:
The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ü) Move the jockey gently over the wire & don't rub it.
(iüi) All plugs in resistant box should be tight.
Sources of Error:
The plugs may not be clean.
(iü) The instrument screws maybe loose.
EXPERIMENT
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000 S2 and 500
S2), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper.

Circuit Diagram : 0 For hatf deflection method (ü) For figure of merit
K. E

Fig. 7.1 :Resistance of galvanometer Fig. 7.2: Figure of merit

Formulae Used:
(i) The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method:
R.S
G=
R-S
Where R: resistance connected in series with the galvanometer
S: shunt resistance For Half Deflection:

(i) Figure of merit:k= (R+G) O Half Galvanometer

Deflection in Shunt
S. Resistance Deflectio Resistance
No. R (2)
galvanometer resistance n RS
Where E:emf of the cell (0) s(2) 0/2
G=
R-S
8: deflection produced with resistance R. 1 4500 30 70 15 71.1
2 9500 14 70 7 70.5
|3 5200 26 70 13 70.9
Calculation: Mean G=70.8 S2 4 5700 24 70 12 70.8
Mean G = 70.8 S2
(i) For G: Calculate G using formula. For Figure of Merit:
Take mean of all values of G recorded in table.
Figure of
(iü) For k: Calculatek using formula & record in table. $. Emf of the
Resistance
Deflection Merit
from R, B.
Take mean of values of k. No. cells E(v) 0 (div.) E
RQ K=
Result: (R+G)e
1 1.5 x2=3 4500 30 2.18 x 10
(i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half- deflection method:
2 3 9500 14 2.23 x 105
G=70.82 3 3 5200 26 2.18 x 10-5
(iü) Figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10 A/div 4 3 5700
Mean K= 2.19 x 105 A/div.
24 2.16 x 10
Precautions:
(i) All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
(ü) The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
(iüi) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit. Otherwise for small
resistance, an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter & damage them.
Sources of error:
(i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean.
(ü) The screws of the instruments maybe loose.
(iüi) The e f of Lhe batlery iay IUL be cnstant.
EXPERIMENT
Aim: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance & figure of merit) into an ammeter of desired range &
to verify the same.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer whose resistance & figure of merit are given, constantan or manganin
wire, a battery, one-way key, a rheostat, a milli-ammeter, connecting wires, sand paper etc.

Circuit Diagram :

Rheostet

G
S Coverted
Ammeter

Fig. 7(A) - 1:Converted Galvanomeler into an ammeter.

Formulae Used:
To convert a galvanometer which gives full scale deflection for current IG into an ammeter of range O to lo amperes,

the value of required shunt is given by:

Required shunt resistant S is made using a uniform wire whose, specific resistance is p (known) & its length:

Observations: Given resistance of galvanometer,G =70.8S2

Given value of figure of merit, k= 2.19 x 10 A div
Total no. of divisionson either side of zero, N,= 30
Current for full scale deflection, lG = No x k=6.57 x 10A
Table for Verification:

a) Calculation of value of shunt resistance: S

Galvanometer Reading Ammeter
Error
* Required range of converted ammeter, I,= 3A No. Deflection Current
Ih=0x LC
Reading
2-I) A
*Value of shunt resistance, I, -nx LC
|1 3 x0.1 =.3 6x.05 = 0.3 0.0
0.5 11 x 0.05 =.55 0.05
s= 7 0.7 15 x 0.05 =.75 0.05
4 9 0.9 19 x 0.5 .95 0.05
* Computing the length of the wire to make resistance of 0. 155 2
b) Observations for diameter of the wire:
(i) Pitch of screw gauge, p =l mm
(ii) No. of division of circular scale = 100
(üi) Least count, a = 0.0l mm
(iv) Zero error, e=0.0 mm
(v) Diameter of the wire =0.98 mm, Radius = 0.049 cm
c) Specific resistance of material of wire, p=1.92 x10" Qem
d) Required length of the wire,
l=Sx
0.0155x3.14x (0.049)* cm =60.8 cm
p 1.72 x10
Verification: Checking the performance of the converted ammeter:

Current indicated by full scale deflection (N,) of converted ammeter. I, = 3A

Least count of converted ammeter, k =0.1A/ div.
N,
Result:
Current LG for full scale deflection =6.57 x 10* A
Resistance of shunt required to convert the galvanometer into ammeter, S =0.0155 2
Required length of wire, I = 60.8 cm
As error l-lis verysmall, conversion is verified.
Precautions & Sources of Error:
(i) Allconnections should be neat & tight.
(ii) The diameter of the wire for making shunt resistance should be measured accurately for diameter is taken
in two mutually perpendicular directions.
(iüi) The terminal of the ammeter marked positive should be connected to positive pole of the battery. Also
ammeter should be in series with circuit.
EXPERIMENT
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights (2 fixed upright middle two outer uprights with lateral movement),
convex lens, convex mirror, a lens holder, a miror holder, 2 optical needles (one thin, one thick), a knitting needle, a
half meter scale.
Ray Diagram

(a)

(b)

Fig. : 10.1 Focal Length of Convex Mirror

Formula Used:
R
Focal length of aconvex mirror f=
2
Where R is radius of curvature of the mirror.
Observation:
(i) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.
(ü) Observed distance between image needle I and back of convex mirror, y = 15 cm
(iii)) Index eror =y -x = 15 15 =0 cm No index correction
Observation Table:
Position of: Radius of
S.N.Object needle Lens Mirror Image needle Curvature
0 (cm) L cm M cm I(cm) MI (cm)
25 50 56 70.5 14.5
2 28.5 50 60 73.3 13.3
3 31.5 50 65 78.4 13.4
4 30.5 50 60 74 14
Mean R = 13.8

Calculation:

Mean corected MI =R = 13.8 cm R. cm

f= 9=6.9
Result:
The focal length of the given convex mirror=6.9 cm
Precautions:
i) The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror & centre of kns should be at the same height.
(ü) Convex lens should be of large focal length.
(iii) For one set of observations, when the parallax has been removed for convex lens alone, the position of the lens &
needle uprights should not be changed.
EXPERIMENT
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph:
(i) between u and y (i) between and
Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens, lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needles &
a half-metre scale.

Ray Diagram B'

made ot
AR

2F

Obiect Imego
Neede Needle

Fig 11. 1 focel Length of Convex Lans

Formula Used:
The relation between u, v and ffor convex lens is:
1_11
f v u
Wheref focal length of convex lens
u: distance of object needle from lens' optical centre.
v: distance of image needle from lens' optical centre.
Observations:
(i) Rough focal length of the lens = 10 cm
(ü) Actual length of kniting needle, x = 15 cm.
(iii) Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, y= 15.2 cm.
(iv)Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, z= 14.1 cm.
(v) Index correction forthe object distanceu, x-y=-0.2 cm
(vi) Index correction for the image distance v, x -z=+0.9 cm
Observation Table:

Position of: (cm)

S. No. Object Lens Image u (cm) v (cm) /v (cm") lhu (cm)
needle needle
66 50 26 16 24 0.041 0.062
2 67 50 27 7 23 0.043 0.058
3 68 50 28 I8 22 0.045 0.055
4 70 50 30 20 20 0.05 0.05
5 75 50 33 23 17 0.058 0.043
6 80 50 34 24 16 0.062 0.041
u- curve

Calculation of focal length by graphical method:

() u-v graph: The graph is arectangular hyperbola:
Scale: X' axis: Icm =5 cm of u
Y' axis: lcm =5 cm of v
AB = AC=for OC =OB =f

u (cm)

OB and alsof=0c
2 2 lhu vs yCurve
. Mean value of f= 10.1 cm.
1 1
(ii) graph:The graph is a straight line.

Scale; X' axis: I cm= 0.01 cm' of

Y' axis: I cm =0.01 cm' of

1
Focal length,f=10.2cm.
OP 0Q
Result:
(i) From u-v graph is,f= 10.1 cm

(i) From!
-graph is,f= 10.2 cm
Precautions:
(i) Tips of object & image needles should be at the same height as the centre the lens.
(ii) Parallax should be removed from tip-to-tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm. away from the needle.
(iüi) The image & the object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.
EXPERIMENT
Aim: To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights, a convex lens (less focal length), a concave lens (more focal length).
two lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needle & a half - metre scale.
Rey Diegramn :

(a)

(b)

Fig. 12.1 Fooal Length of a concave lene

Formulae Used: Rom lens formula, we have:

f=
Observations:
Actual length of knitting needle, x= 15 cm.
Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15 cm.
Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between then, z = 15 cm.
Index coTection for u= x-y=0 cm
Index corection for v=X-z =0 cm

Observation Table:
Position of (cm)
S. No. u = ILz y=I'L; f=
0 (cm) LËat O1 L
29 50 75 69 78 6.0 9.0 -18.0
2 27 50 71.5 65 77.5 6.5 12.5 -13.54
3 25 50 70.5 65 72.8 5.5 7.8 -18.64
4 28 50 71.3 63 71.2 8.3 8.2 -17.45

Calculations:
Meanf= tf+f+f.
4
=- 16.9 cm 17cm.
Result: The focal length of given concave lens = - 17 cm.
Precautions:
i) The lenses must be clean.
(ii) A bright image should be formed by lens combination.
(üi) Focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of the concave lens, so that the combination is
ConveXx.
EXPERIMENT
Aim: (i) To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence
& angle of deviation.
(ü) To determine the refractive index of the material (glass) of the prism.
Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale, office pins, graph
paper & protector.
Diagram

T.
P.
Fig. 13.1 : Retraction through prism at ditferent angles

Formulae Used:
The refractive index, u of the material of the prism is given by:
A+ Dm
sin
=
2 Where D,mis the angle of minimum deviation & A is the angle of prism.
sin
Calculations:
From graph between angle of incidence, i and angle of deviation, we get the value of D, (angle of minimum
deviation): D,,= 37.8° >

Thus, sin
A+ Dm sinlp7.) (8)
Deviation
sin 30°

u=1.5077
S. Angle of Angle of
Deviation Z8
ofAngle
No. Incidence Zi
35 43º
40° 38.8°
3 45 37.8°
4 50° 38°
55 409
Angle of Incidence (i) --->
6 600 42°

Result:
(i) From Zi-ZDgraph we see that as iincreases, ZD first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm) & then again
starts increasing for further increase in i.
(ü) Angle of minimumdeviation = Dm= 37.8°
(iüi) Refraction index of material of prism, =1.5077
Precautions:
(i) The angle of incidence should be between 30° - 60°.
(ii) The pins should be fixed vertical.
(üi) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm.
Sources of Error:
(i) Pin pricks may be thick.
(ü) Measurement of angles maybe wrong.
EXPERIMENT
Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope.
Apparatus: A marker., glass slab, travelling microscope. Iycopodium powder. u l l

d,-r,-r,

Formulae Used:
real depth
Refractive index u=
apparent depth r -;
Observations:
Least count of travelling microscope=0.001 cm or 0.0l mm
Mean values: r=0 mm In=6.8l mm I3= 10.25 mm
Observations: Reading of Microscope focused on:
Mark without slab Mark with slab on it Powder on top of slab
S. No.
r,=M +nx LCmin =M +nxLCmin Rj= M+nx LC min
1 0 6.5 + 29 x 0.01 =6.79mm 10 + 23 x 0.01 = 10.23mm
2 0 6.5 + 31 x 0.01 = 6.8 i mm 10+ 25 x 0.01 = 10.25mm
3 0 6.5 + 33 x 0.01 = 6.83mm 10 + 27 x 0.01 = 10.27mm
Calculations:
Real depth = d, = - I | = Mean d, = 10.25 mm
Apparent depth = d, = r)- I|
Mean d, =6.81 mm
.. Refractive index, = real depth d, ..u=1.52
apparent depth d,
Result:
The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as 1.52 = u
Precautions:
(i) Microscope once focused on the cross mark, the focusing should not be disturbed throughout the experiment. Only
rack and pinion screw should be tumed to move the microscope upward.
(iü) Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on top of slab.
(ii) Eye piece should be so adjusted that cross-wires are distinctly seen.
EXPERIMENT
Aim: To draw the I V characteristics curve of p-njunction in forward bias & reverse bias.
Apparatus: A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a three volt battery, a high resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter (0
3v), a milli ammeter (0-.30 mA), one - way key, connecting wires.
(mA
aFRENT
FORWAFD

AV

FOAWARD VOLTAGE (M

PEVERSE BAS (V

Observations:
Least count of voltmeter =0.02 &1 v/div Zero error = -
Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.2 mA/div Zero error .
Least count of micro-ammeter = 2 u A/div Zero error =
Observation Table:
Forward Bias Voltage Forward Current Reverse bias Voltage Reverse Current
S. No.
(V) (mA) (V) (u A)
1 10 x 0.02 = 0.20 2 x 0.2 =0.4 10 x 1= 10 5x 2 = 10
2 0.30 4 x 0.2 =0.8 15 16
0.40 6x 0.2 = 1.6 20
0.50 11 x 0.2 =2.2 25 B0
0.60 18 x 0.2 =3.6 30 38
6 0.70 23 x 0.2 =4.6 35
0.80 31 x 0.2= 6.2 40 60
8 0.90 39 x 0.2 =7.8 45 12
I-Vuve for p-n jumetiondiode

oeo

Calculations:
Graph is plotted between forward- bias voltage (Vr) (on x-axis) and forward current, I (on y- axis)
Scale: X- axis: I cm =V of V Y- axis: lcm = mÀ of Ir
Graph is plotted between reverse bias voltage, Va (along Xaxis) and reverse current, Ig (along Y" axis).
Scale: X' axis = Icm=V of VR Y' axis = | cm = uA of I
Result: The obtained curves are the characteristics curves of the semi-conductor diode.
Precautions:
(i) All connections should be neat, clean & tight. (ii) Key should be used in circuit & opened when the circuit is not
being used. (iii) Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Sources of error: The junction diode supplied maybe faulty.