TERM 1

EXPERIMENT-1
AIM : To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graphfor potential
difference versus current.
APPARATUS:
Voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, battery, 2 experimental wires, meterscale,
connecting wire and key
THEORY:

Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing

through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across
its ends,provided the temperature and other physical conditions remain unchanged.
V = IR
Resistivity can be defined as the resistance of a conducting material perunit length
with unit area of cross section.
ρ= RA / ℓ = R𝜋D2/4ℓ

PROCEDURE

 Connect the components as shown in circuit.

 Adjust the rheostat so that a measurable current passes throughthe
resistance wire.
 Note the potential difference and current from voltmeter andammeter
respectively.
 Shift the rheostat contact and take five sets of observations.
 Stretch the resistance wire, measure its length ℓ and find thethickness
D.
 Repeat the experiment for second wire and calculate their
resistivity.

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OBSERVATION

Length of the Wire 1 =

Length of the Wire 2 =
Diameter of wire 1 =
Diameter of wire 2 =
Least Count of Voltmeter =
Least Count of Ammeter =

Wire 1 Ammeter Voltmeter reading (V)

reading (A)
1
2
3
4
Wire 2 Ammeter Voltmeter reading (V)
reading (A)
1
2
3
4

By Graph
Resistance of wire1=
Resistance of wire2=
Calculation: Resistivity of wire1= R𝜋D2/4ℓ =

Resistivity of wire2= R𝜋D2/4ℓ =

RESULT :

 Resistivity of wire 1 =
 Resistivity of wire 2 =
2
PRECAUTION
 Use ammeter and voltmeter of appropriate range.
 All connections should be tight and neat

SOURCES OF ERROR
 Non-uniform cross-section of wire.
 Loose screws of instrument.
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Exp 2. Meter Bridge-Determination of Unknown resistance of a wire

Aim: To find the resistance of the given wire using meter bridge

Requirements: Meter Bridge, galvanometer, one way key, resistance box,

Battery Eliminator, jockey, unknown resistance wire, connecting wires.

Theory:

Wheatstone’s bridge: A meter bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone’s

bridge experiment as shown in figure. If there is no deflection in the galvanometer,

then which is the condition of balance of bridge. We use this relation to find
the unknown resistance S of the given material of wire.

The wire whose resistance is to be found is connected in the arm CD. A

resistance box from which a known resistance can be taken out is connected across
the gap AB. A sensitive galvanometer followed by a jockey is connected between the
points B and D so as to slide over the wire AD. A cell is connected across AC.

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Sources of error:

1. There may be error due to contact resistances.

2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when
continuous current flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to
copper strips and connecting screws.
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Exp. 3.Meter bridge-Combination of resistances( Series)
Aim: To verify the law of combination (series) of resistances using a meter
bridge.
Requirements: Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, a resistance box,
Lechlanche cell(or) battery eliminator of 2V, jockey, two unknown resistance
wires and connecting wires.
Theory: In series arrangement, the resistors are connected end to end. The
source of current is connected between the free ends of the first and the last
resistor. In this arrangement, the current through each resistor is the same but
potential difference acrossdifferent resistors is different. The potential
difference of the source is distributed acrossdifferent resistors. Let I be the
current through each resistor of resistance R1, R2, R3 and V1, V2, V3 the
potential difference across each, then V = V1+V2+V3, where V1 = IR1,
V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3.
So, V = I RS, where RS is the effective resistance of the combination..

Here, R1 = [(100-l)/l]S

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Resistance from Balancing (100-l) cm Unknown Mean resistance
Resistance box length l (cm) resistance (Ω)
Wire S(Ω) = [(100-l)/l]S
(Ω)

R1 = [(100-l) / l]S

Wire I

R2 = [(100-l) / l]S

Wire 2

RS= [(100-l) / l]S

In Series

Procedure:
a) Measure the unknown resistances R1 and R2 using meter bridge experiment.
b) Connect two resistances R1 and R2 in series.
c) Check for deflection on both sides by touching the jockey at both ends of
meter bridgewire.
d) Proceed in the same way as in meter bridge experiment. Take atleast
four sets ofobservations.
e) Compare the measured values of effective resistances using meter bridge with
calculatedvalues.
Verification:

By theory, RS = R1 + R2 = Ω

By experiment, RS = Ω

Precautions:

1) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of meter bridge
properly.

2) All connections should be neat and tight.

3) Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.

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4) Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in
contact for a long time.

5) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of meter bridge.

Sources of error:

1. There may be error due to contact resistances.

2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.

3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when

continuous current flows for some time.

4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.

5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to

copper strips and connecting screws.

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Exp.4 Resistance and Figure of merit of galvanometer

Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and
to find its figure of merit.

Requirements: Galvanometer, battery, two resistance boxes, one way key(two

numbers) and connecting wires.

Theory: A galvanometer is a device used to detect small current in a circuit. It

has a coil pivoted in a radial magnetic field. When electric current is passed through
the coil, it gets deflected. Its deflection is noted by attaching a pointer to the coil. The
deflection is proportional to current passed. A galvanometer has a moderate
resistance and has a small current carrying capacity.

The resistance of a galvanometer can be found by half deflection method. The

circuit is shown for this method. Key K is inserted and deflection θ is determined
with a suitable value of R. If E is the emf of cell and I be the current in circuit, the
galvanometer resistance,

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ACTIVITY 1

PRECAUTION
 Use ammeter and voltmeter of appropriate range.
 All connections should be tight and neat

SOURCES OF ERROR
 Non-uniform cross-section of wire.
 Loose screws of instrument.
Result

The components are assembled.

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ACTIVITY 2

CORRECTING THE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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AIM:

To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery,

resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not
connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:

A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6 V), rheostat, resistance box (0 to 100 Ω),

two- or one-way key. D.C. ammeter (0-3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0-3) V.

PRINCIPLE:

An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components of the circuit are
connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit components/devices are in
working condition and key is closed. An open circuit means a break in some part of a
circuit which could be deliberate such as a key in open position or a fault such as
broken wire or burnt-out component(s) or loose connection. Some of such circuits are
given in Figs.

Incorrect circuit

Correct circuit

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PROCEDURE:

1. Consider one circuit and mark the various components which have not been

connected in proper order.

2. Draw the correct circuit diagram.

3. Connect the electrical components according to corrected circuit diagram.

4. Close the key in the circuit to verify if the corrected circuit is functional.

RESULT:

The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram is functional.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of
the voltmeter and positive terminal of the ammeter.

2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter
should be connected in parallel with it.

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ACTIVITY 3

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S.No Length of Voltmeter reading K=V/l
potentiometer V(V) (V/cm)
wire l(cm)

Modal graph:

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TERM 2

Exp.5 Focal length of concave mirror

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Exp 6. Focal length of convex lens

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Exp.7 Refractive index of water using convex lens and a plane mirror

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1. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat,
Key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order
and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

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Exp 8: I-V Characteristic Curve of a P-N Junction diode

Aim
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a P-N junction in forward bias and reverse bias.

Materials Required
A junction diode (IN 270 or IN 3065), milliammeter (0 - 500 mA), voltmeter (0 - 3V), microammeter (0- 100
µA), volmeter (0 – 100 V), 5 V and 100 V d.c. supplies, rheostat, key and connecting wire (or a diode
characterization box)

Theory
Forward bias characteristics

The junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery. With an increase in the voltage, the current also
increases. For Si diode, at 0.7 V the current increases suddenly.

Reverse bias characteristics

The junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to
the negative terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery. With an increase in the voltage, there is a small change in
the current but the reverse current increases to a higher value with an increase in the
voltage.

Diagram

Forward bias

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Reverse bias

Procedure
For forward bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. For voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA), the least count and zero error should be noted.
4. Increase the VF by 0.1 V and record the corresponding current. When the VF becomes 0.7 V, the
current will increase rapidly.

5. For particular value of VF the current increases suddenly and this is known as forward
breakdown stage.Record the observations.

6. Plot a graph between VF and IF taking VF on the x-axis and IF on the y-axis. The graph
obtained is known as forward bias characteristic curve.

reverse bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
4. Increase VR by 1V and record the corresponding current. When VR becomes 20 V, the current
will increase rapidly.
5. For particular value of VR , the current increases suddenly and this is known as reverse
breakdown stage. Record the current reading and take off the key.
6. Record the observations.
7. Plot a graph between VR and IR taking VR on the negative x-axis and negative IR on the y-
axis. The graph obtained is known as reverse bias characteristic curve.

Observations
For forward bias

Least count of the voltmeter = …….V

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Least count of milli-ammeter = …….mA

Table for forward bias voltage and forward current

Sl.no Forward bias voltage VF in V Forward current IF in mA

For reverse bias

Least count of the voltmeter = …….V

Least count of micro-ammeter = …….μA

Table for reverse bias voltage and reverse current

Sl.no Reverse bias voltage VR in V Reverse current IR in μA

Result
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The V-I characteristic curve is drawn.

Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used when the circuit is being used.
3. Beyond breakdown, forward bias voltage should not be applied.
4. Beyond breakdown, reverse bias voltage should not be applied.

Sources Of Error
1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose.
2. Each time the pointer of ammeter ( milli or micro)may not be on a scale mark.
3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.
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ACTIVITY 4

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ACTIVITY 5

To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely

on a glass slab

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ACTIVITY 6

PROCEDURE

1. Find the focal length of lenses 1 & 2 using distant object method.
2. Combine the lenses and adjust the distance between the combination of
lenses and the screen to get a clear image of object, that gives the focal
length of combination of lenses.

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