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William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
9th Edition
Chapter 12
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Instruction Sets:
Characteristics and Functions
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Machine Instruction
Characteristics

◼ The operation of the processor is determined by the

instructions it executes, referred to as machine instructions or
computer instructions

◼ The collection of different instructions that the processor can

execute is referred to as the processor’s instruction set

◼ Each instruction must contain the information required by the

processor for execution
Elements of a Machine Instruction

Operation code Source operand

(opcode) reference
• Specifies the operation to • The operation may involve
be performed. The one or more source
operation is specified by a operands, that is,
binary code, known as the operands that are inputs
operation code, or opcode for the operation

Result operand Next instruction

reference reference
• The operation may • This tells the processor
produce a result where to fetch the next
instruction after the
execution of this
instruction is complete
Instruction Cycle State Diagram
Source and result operands can be
in one of four areas:
3) Processor register
◼ A processor contains one or
1) Main or virtual memory more registers that may be
◼ As with next instruction referenced by machine
references, the main or virtual instructions.
memory address must be
supplied ◼ If more than one register
exists each register is
assigned a unique name or
number and the instruction
2) I/O device must contain the number of
◼ The instruction must specify the desired register
the I/O module and device for 4) Immediate
the operation. If memory-
mapped I/O is used, this is ◼ The value of the operand is
just another main or virtual contained in a field in the
memory address instruction being executed
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Instruction Representation
◼ Within the computer each instruction is represented by a
sequence of bits

◼ The instruction is divided into fields, corresponding to the

constituent elements of the instruction
Instruction Types
• Arithmetic instructions provide • Movement of data into or
computational capabilities for out of register and or
processing numeric data memory locations
• Logic (Boolean) instructions operate
on the bits of a word as bits rather
than as numbers, thus they provide
capabilities for processing any
other type of data the user may wish
to employ

Data Data
processing storage

Data
Control
movement
• Test instructions are used to test the • I/O instructions are needed
value of a data word or the status of a to transfer programs and
computation data into memory and the
• Branch instructions are used to branch results of computations
to a different set of instructions back out to the user
depending on the decision made
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Number of Addresses
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Table 12.1
Utilization of Instruction Addresses
(Nonbranching Instructions)
Instruction Set Design
Very complex because it affects so many aspects of the computer system

Defines many of the functions performed by the processor

Programmer’s means of controlling the processor

Fundamental design issues:

Operation repertoire Data types Instruction format Registers Addressing

• How many and which • The various types of data • Instruction length in bits, • Number of processor • The mode or modes by
operations to provide and upon which operations are number of addresses, size registers that can be which the address of an
how complex operations performed of various fields, etc. referenced by instructions operand is specified
should be and their use
Types of Operands
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Numbers

◼ All machine languages include numeric data types

◼ Numbers stored in a computer are limited:

◼ Limit to the magnitude of numbers representable on a machine
◼ In the case of floating-point numbers, a limit to their precision

◼ Three types of numerical data are common in computers:

◼ Binary integer or binary fixed point
◼ Binary floating point
◼ Decimal

◼ Packed decimal
◼ Each decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit code with two digits
stored per byte
◼ To form numbers 4-bit codes are strung together, usually in multiples
of 8 bits
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Characters

◼ A common form of data is text or character strings

◼ Textual data in character form cannot be easily stored or

transmitted by data processing and communications systems
because they are designed for binary data

◼ Most commonly used character code is the International

Reference Alphabet (IRA)
◼ Referred to in the United States as the American Standard Code
for Information Interchange (ASCII)

◼ Another code used to encode characters is the Extended

Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
◼ EBCDIC is used on IBM mainframes
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Logical Data

◼ An n-bit unit consisting of n 1-bit items of data, each item

having the value 0 or 1

◼ Two advantages to bit-oriented view:

◼ Memory can be used most efficiently for storing an array of
Boolean or binary data items in which each item can take on only
the values 1 (true) and 0 (false)
◼ To manipulate the bits of a data item
◼ If floating-point operations are implemented in software, we
need to be able to shift significant bits in some operations
◼ To convert from IRA to packed decimal, we need to extract the
rightmost 4 bits of each byte
Table
12.2
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x86 Data
x86 Data Types Types
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x86 Numeric Data

Formats
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Single-Instruction-Multiple-Data
(SIMD) Data Types

◼ Introduced to the x86 architecture as part of the extensions of the

instruction set to optimize performance of multimedia applications

◼ These extensions include MMX (multimedia extensions) and SSE

(streaming SIMD extensions)

◼ Data types:
◼ Packed byte and packed byte integer
◼ Packed word and packed word integer
◼ Packed doubleword and packed doubleword integer
◼ Packed quadword and packed quadword integer
◼ Packed single-precision floating-point and packed double-precision
floating-point
ARM Data Types
ARM processors support
data types of:
•8 (byte)
•16 (halfword)
•32 (word) bits in length

All three data types can Alignment checking

also be used for twos •When the appropriate control
complement signed bit is set, a data abort signal
indicates an alignment fault for
integers attempting unaligned access

For all three data types Unaligned access

an unsigned
interpretation is •When this option is enabled,
the processor uses one or
supported in which the more memory accesses to
value represents an generate the required transfer
unsigned, nonnegative of adjacent bytes transparently
to the programmer
integer
ARM Endian Support
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Table 12.3

Common
Instruction Set
Operations

(page 1 of 2)
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Table 12.3

Common
Instruction
Set
Operations

(page 2 of 2)
Table 12.4
Processor Actions for Various Types of Operations
Data Transfer

Must specify:
• Location of the source and
destination operands
Most fundamental type of • The length of data to be
machine instruction transferred must be indicated
• The mode of addressing for each
operand must be specified
Table 12.5
Examples of IBM EAS/390 Data Transfer Operations
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◼ Most machines provide the basic arithmetic
operations of add, subtract, multiply, and divide

◼ These are provided for signed integer (fixed-

point) numbers

◼ Often they are also provided for floating-point

and packed decimal numbers

◼ Other possible operations include a variety of

single-operand instructions:
Arithmetic
◼ Absolute
◼ Take the absolute value of the operand
◼ Negate
◼ Negate the operand
◼ Increment
◼ Add 1 to the operand
Decrement
◼ Subtract 1 from the operand
Logical

Table 12.6 Basic Logical Operations

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Shift and Rotate

Operations
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Table 12.7
Examples of Shift and Rotate
Operations
Instructions that change
the format or operate on
the format of data
Conversion

An example of a more
An example is complex editing
converting from instruction is the
decimal to binary EAS/390 Translate (TR)
instruction
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Input/Output

◼ Variety of approaches taken:

◼ Isolated programmed I/O
◼ Memory-mapped programmed I/O
◼ DMA
◼ Use of an I/O processor

◼ Many implementations provide only a few I/O instructions,

with the specific actions specified by parameters, codes, or
command words
System Control

Instructions that can be executed only while the processor is in a certain

privileged state or is executing a program in a special privileged area of
memory

Typically these instructions are reserved for the use of the operating
system

Examples of system control operations:

A system control An instruction to read or Access to process control

instruction may read or modify a storage blocks in a
alter a control register protection key multiprogramming system
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Transfer of Control

◼ Reasons why transfer-of-control operations are required:

◼ It is essential to be able to execute each instruction more than
once
◼ Virtually all programs involve some decision making
◼ It helps if there are mechanisms for breaking the task up into
smaller pieces that can be worked on one at a time

◼ Most common transfer-of-control operations found in

instruction sets:
◼ Branch
◼ Skip
◼ Procedure call
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Branch
Instruction
Skip Instructions

Typically implies that one

instruction be skipped,
Includes an implied thus the implied address
address equals the address of the
next instruction plus one
instruction length

Because the skip

instruction does not Example is the
require a destination increment-and-skip-if-
address field it is free to zero (ISZ) instruction
do other things
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Procedure Call Instructions

◼ Self-contained computer program that is incorporated into a

larger program
◼ At any point in the program the procedure may be invoked, or called
◼ Processor is instructed to go and execute the entire procedure and
then return to the point from which the call took place

◼ Two principal reasons for use of procedures:

◼ Economy
◼ A procedure allows the same piece of code to be used many times
◼ Modularity

◼ Involves two basic instructions:

◼ A call instruction that branches from the present location to the
procedure
◼ Return instruction that returns from the procedure to the place from
which it was called
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Nested
Procedures
Use of Stack to Implement Nested
Procedures
Stack Frame Growth Using Sample
Procedures P and Q
Table 12.8

x86
Operation
Types (With
Examples of
+ Typical
Operations)

(page 1 of 2)
Table 12.8

x86
Operation
Types (With
Examples of
Typical
Operations)

(page 2 of 2)
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Call/Return Instructions

◼ The x86 provides four instructions to support procedure call/return:

◼ CALL
◼ ENTER
◼ LEAVE
◼ RETURN

◼ Common means of implementing the procedure is via the use of stack

frames

◼ The CALL instruction pushes the current instruction pointer value onto
the stack and causes a jump to the entry point of the procedure by
placing the address of the entry point in the instruction pointer

◼ The ENTER instruction was added to the instruction set to provide direct
support for the compiler
x86 Status Flags
Table 12.10

x86
Condition
Codes for
Conditional
Jump and
SETcc
Instructions
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x86 Single-Instruction, Multiple-
Data (SIMD) Instructions
◼ 1996 Intel introduced MMX technology into its Pentium
product line
◼ MMX is a set of highly optimized instructions for multimedia tasks

◼ Video and audio data are typically composed of large arrays

of small data types

◼ Three new data types are defined in MMX

◼ Packed byte
◼ Packed word
◼ Packed doubleword

◼ Each data type is 64 bits in length and consists of multiple

smaller data fields, each of which holds a fixed-point integer
MMX
Instruction
Set

Note: If an instruction supports multiple data types [byte (B), word (W), doubleword (D), quadword
(Q)], the data types are indicated in brackets.
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Image Compositing
on Color Plane
Representation
ARM Operation Types

Load and store Branch Data-processing

instructions instructions instructions

Parallel addition
Multiply Extend
and subtraction
instructions instructions
instructions

Status register
access
instructions
ARM
Conditions
for
Conditional
Instruction
Execution
+ Summary Instruction Sets:
Characteristics and
Functions
Chapter 12
◼ Intel x86 and ARM data types
◼ Machine instruction
◼ Types of operations
characteristics
◼ Data transfer
◼ Elements of a machine
instruction ◼ Arithmetic
◼ Instruction representation ◼ Logical
◼ Instruction types ◼ Conversion
◼ Number of addresses ◼ Input/output
◼ Instruction set design ◼ System control
◼ Types of operands ◼ Transfer of control
◼ Numbers
◼ Intel x86 and ARM operation
◼ Characters
types
◼ Logical data