Measurement of Resistance 51 4. Alow resistance rheostat should be used, ‘The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of resistance (otherwise its resistance will increase). ‘The electric current through resistance wire should not be very high, s0 as to avoid heating effect of current. ‘The switch should be open when you are not taking readings. SOURCES OF ERROR 1. The instrument screws may be loose. 2. Thick connecting wires may not be available, 5. Rheostat may have high resistance. "EXPERIMENT 2 5 AIM: To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre bridge. APPARATUS A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (or Battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, a one-way key, a resistance wire, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. THEORY where Ris known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap of metre bridge. cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Known resistance Unknown resistance R x fal KL 14 Resistance 1, box Be eg Si i © Gatvanometer | 010 20 30 40,50 60 70 80 90 100 | re iu © a4 y #1 + (400 -» ——+ } E (—t___}> oS pete id Lectanche cell (Battery eliminator) Fig. Circuit diagram—Metre bridgeMeasurement of Resistance OBSERVATIONS 53 1. Length of given wire, L 2. Table for unknow cm resistance (X) |" SeriatNo.of | Resist Pr istance fromthe |b Se | Bis é ength AB =1 Li T array | resistance box eset Nie st Gabor il k (om) BC= (100-1) | resistance | | (ohm) Cond! stun Cd | | | CALCULATIONS 1. Calculation for X 8 a Position of D, find cm and write in column 3 of Table 1. ‘ind length (100 ~ 1) cm and write in column 4. (© Calculate X and write in column 5. Mean x= X1t%+%+% E 4 Standard value of the resistance of given wire (from resistance box), Percentage error tESULT 1. The value of unknown resistance, X = 2. Percentage error =... ‘RECAUTIONS 1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it. | The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken. . Null point should be brought between 45 cmand 55cm. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax. ‘The wire should not make a loop. Naynwn OURCES OF ERROR . The instrument screws may be loose. . The plugs may not be clean. . ‘The wire may not have uniform thickness. tts like back lash error and wrong pitch. Rowe . ‘The screw gauge may have faulGalvanometer, Ammeter and Vottmer, er PRECAUTIONS & All the connections should be neat clean and tigh a , and tight, . The e.m-f. of the cell or battery should be con: oe ‘The ammeter used fo: rv eo crification should preferably be of ly be of the same range, as the range of en ss ‘The diameter of the wi Hof shant os ire to be used for shunt resistance, should be measured accurately. ; re used should be neither too small nor too large ‘The resistance box should be a high resistance one ] wo ‘The voltmeter used for verificat of the same range, as the range i aa ion should preferably be Bes ~ Value of required series resistance should be calculated accurately. Gai EXPERIMENT 5B Ea AIM: Toconvertthe given galvanometer resistant of merit jarmmeter sfalestredrangedied toveriytheee cea mae APPARATUS A weston type galvanometer, an ammeter of 0-3 A range, a battery of two cells or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Q and 200 9) resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, connecting wires anda piece of sand paper. THEORY ‘The shunt resistance required for conversion, 1,xG Ss T= where [is the range of conversion. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM E cH i rt Rheostat Iy ior Fig. Circuit diagram for verification for ammeter.Comprehensive Prac, 76 PROCEDURE ome divisions on either side of zero of the galvanomer,, Count the total number of di ¢ ben. . Lenk full scale deflection i-e., [, ; Calculate the eusrest()) for . for conversion into ammeter, using the fo, Calculate the value of shunt resistance, 1,xG where I is the range of conversion. ; ¢ (The value of shunt resistance S is usually very small and a resistance Bor ofthat range Ising available. Such small resistances are obtained by taking wires of copper, + Mangan, eureka, etc., of a suitable diameter and length). , hess Cuta length of the wire 2 cm more than the calculated value |. Mark two points on the wire, on «m away from each end. Connect this wire to the two terminals of the Fa Such th, the marked points are just outside the terminal screws. This galvanometer with shunt win will now work as an ammeter of range I. Make the electric connections as shown in circuit diagram. Insert the key and adjust the rheostat so that the galvanometer shows nearly maximuy deflection. Note the reading on the galvanometer scale and also corresponding reading on the ammeter, © Record your observations. CALCULATION Resistance of the galvanometer, G ~. Figure of merit, k Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n Current for full scale deflection, i, Range of conversion, -. Shunt resistance s VERIFICATION Least count of the galvanometer converted into ammeter e I nComprehensive ae Se wm EXPERIMENT 3A im AIM: To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge APPARATUS i OX. ameter, a resistance DOM | ae ‘and paper anc ‘A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell (or battery eliminator), 2 galvat aset square © jockey, two resistance wires or two resistance coils of known resistances connecting wires. THEORY q@oo-) xR venby. 2 an the left gap and is *he length of the me, 6) The resistance (7) of a resistance wire or coll is gi where Ris the resistance from the resistance box ridge wire from zero end up to balance point: ined resistance, ‘ old eir com! (i) When two resistances r, andr, a7 connected in series, then the Reanth CIRCUIT DIAGRAM @ Inseries 60 Fig. Series combination of resistances. (ii) Resistances in series Fig. Resistances in series.Camprehenstue Practical Phy: = «EXPERIMENT 4 2 IM: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by’ half-deflection method and to findits figure of merit. \PPARATUS. two (10,000 9 and ery eliminator a voltmeter, a battery or batt a metre £¢% ys, a rheostat, a screw gauges ‘A.weston type galvanometer, ale, an ammeter of 200 £2) resistance boxes, two one-way ke 2 given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper- THEORY . is given by, (‘The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method is given RS ea G=-— ( R-S nected in series with the the shunt resistang ‘ is where Ris the resistance co! galvanometer and Si (i) The figure of merit, +o ¢ cell and 6 is the deflection pro galvanometer, duced with resistance R. where Bis the e.m.f. of th ‘urrent that can pass through the T= nk (ii) The maximum where nis the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on either side of zero, SIRCUIT DIAGRAM Al Ay I, oe i hi-t gee Ka Fig. (a) Resistance of galvanometer. Fig. (6) Figure of merituontnis Pc f the cell “flestatance La H(V) or reading of | from A.B. @attery | battery eliminator | (ohn) eliminator) | @. na a | | | | | | | | | ‘Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, " 1. Calculation for G 6 of Table 1. RS. ite itin column () Calculate G, using formula, G= Rg and write it in col G recorded in column 6 of Table 1. (ii) Take mean of values of 2. Calculation for Ie write it in column 6 of Table 2. E (Calculate k, using formula, k= (R+G)8 and (ji) Take mean of values of k recorded in column 6 of Table 2. RESULT 4. Resistance of given galvanom: rit of given galvanometer = A/div. jeter = 2, Figure of me PRECAUTIONS ‘All the connections should be neat, clean and tight {All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight. tery should be constant. the resistance box (1 excessive current will flow through the galvanomete ‘The em. of cell or bat 4, Initially a high resistance from (otherwise for small resistance an ammeter can be damaged). R) should be introduced in the ¢ SOURCES OF ERROR |. The screws of the instruments may be loose. 2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean. >, ‘The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant. ‘The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.Measurement of Resistance cs PROCEDURE Mark the two resistance coils as r, and r,. - To find, and r, proceed same way as in Experiment 1. (ifr, and r, are not known.) Connect the two coils r, and , in series as shown in figure in the right gap of metre bridge ani find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets of observations. 4, Record your observations as follows. OBSERVATIONS r,only only rand r, in series CALCULATIONS 1. Calculation for r, only, r, only, x, and r, in series. Same as in Experiment 1. 2. Calculation for verification of laws Experimental value of | R, ‘Theoretical value of —R, Difference (if any) RESULT (i) Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of R, are same. (ii) Hence, law of resistances in series is verified. PRECAUTIONS Same as given in Experiment 1.re vanometer, Ammeter and Voltmeter Gal proceDURE (a) Resistance of galvanometer by hal- deflection method 11, Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram. 9, See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight. n” 43. Takeout the high resistance (say 2000 0) from the resistance box Rand insert the ‘key K, only. {gjust the value of Rso that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale. Note the deflection. Let it be 0. Insert the key K, also and without changing the vale of R adjust the value ofS such that defection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtainedin step 5 Lew 7. Note the value of resistance S. 8, Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of Rand adjusti (& Figure of merit 0/2. ing S every time. 4, Take one cell ofthe battery battery eliminator) and Sind its E.M.E by a voltmeter by connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter ‘with cell. Let it be B. 10. Make connections as in circuit diagram. -ve of the 11, Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection 8 (say 30 divisions) when the circuit is dosed. 12. Note the values of resistance R and deflection 8. 13. Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again. 14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with different voltages 8, volts from battery eliminator. 415, Find the figure of merit k using the formula, OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION 1, Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half-deflection method like 2, 4, 6, | Resistance Deflection Shunt Half Galvanometer R inthe resistance deflection resistance (ohm) Galvanometer s 8 c= 6 (ohm) 3 R-S (ohm) a, @ @) a) @) © seyComprehensive Practicy, 76 PROCEDURE Count the total number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometo, t ben. T= nk. * Calculate the current (1.) for full scale deflection i. , Calculate the value of shunt resistance, for conversion into ammeter, using the for,,,,, where I is the range of conversion. (he value of shunt resistance $ is usually very small and a resistance box of that range i, available. Such small resistances are obtained by taking wires of copper, constantan, Manganiy, eureka, etc., of a suitable diameter and length). Cut a length of the wire 2.cm more than the calculated value /. Mark two points on the wire, 9, tha cm away from each end. Connect this wire to the two terminals of the galvanometer such the marked points are just outside the terminal screws. This galvanometer with shunt Wire will now work as an ammeter of range I. Make the electric connections as shown in circuit diagram. Insert the key and adjust the rheostat so that the galvanometer shows nearly maximum deflection. Note the reading on the galvanometer scale and also corresponding reading on the ammeter, ®. Record your observations. CALCULATION Resistance of the galvanometer, +. Figure of merit, Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n Current for full scale deflection, Range of conversion, ~. Shunt resistance 7ERIFICATION Least count of the galvanometer converted into ammeter\ To read the y, ot F : i oO te the following senten f = 2 3 7 ce is of preat hel The b ® 3 4 Great Britain Ve lp. he bold face letter B, B, R, o, 5 ‘ TY Good Wife colours Black, Brown, Red LOVGBR VG “4 , 7 and W, j for a and b, while for th Sd, Orange, Yellows an WEI above sentence . reen, Blue, Vi correspond to the 10°, 10°, 10°, 10% and ip © they carieipond wag sll Grey and White ei | The following to respectively, © the multipliers 10°, 10,107, 10,19. le provides the c , : olour cod Fe 1 lit val for the carbon resistors : (helpfulto memory) | Colour Multiplier Colour | B : Tudyee (| Mforthefouren | Terence Black 0 band) | T B 10° eo Brown Fi Gold 3% e Red : ~ Siver — | 10% ° Orange o Nocolour | 20% Y 3 10° | Yellow 4 c a 10¢ | ; ren 5 Age | Blue 6 v 5 10° Violet 7 07 G 0" Grey 8 10° w White 9 10° Gold 10" Silver 102 PROCEDURE (a) Resistance 1. Mark the given carbon resistors as R,, R, Ry. 2. Note the colour of first, second, third and fourth ring for each resistor. 3... Plugin the probes of the multimeter in appropriate terminals. Select the appropriate range, sort the other ends of probes and adjust zero. Turn the terminal marked ‘Adjust’ such that the needle of the meter shows full scale deflection and reads zero ohm. 4, Separate the metallic ends of the probes. Insert the resistor R, to ‘be measured in between the metallic ends of the two probes and read the deflection of the pointer on the range selected. 5. Repeat the step 4 for other resistors R, and R,, each time selecting the appropriate range 6. and testing the zero. Now convert using the colour code table, tl values with tolerance. he values of resistors in ohms and write their- Q7. Ans. pesuLT ete ‘Ammeter and Voltmeter na! 77 Table { fi j Galvanometer Reading Ammete Diffe e 7 fon | Défection Current in Amp. va "tet 1,=0«L.C.(A) a“ ‘a eo) co) ® o [Asthe difference in actual and measured value of currents (as recored, in column 4) is very small, spe conversion is perfect. pRECAUTIONS Same as given in Experiment SA. VIVAVOCE GALVANOMETER | What is a galvanometer? Itis a device (instrument) used for detecting feeble electric currents in circuits. _ What type of galvanometer is available in laboratories? ‘The laboratory galvanometer is a Weston Galvanometer. Ithas apivoted coil. _ Why the scale of galvanometer has zero in the middle? |. Aneedle at zero in the middle can deflect on both sides. _ Do we have positive and negative terminals in a galvanometer? No,a galvanometer has no positive and negative terminals. The pointer can deflect on either side from zero in the middle. . Why the divisions of a galvanometer scale are equally spaced? Deflection in pointer is proportional to the current passed, The number of divisions in deflection will be proportional to the current passed (e., 1=6). Define figure of merit of a galvanometer. ‘The quantity of current required to produce a deflection of one division in the galvanometer, is called figure of merit of the galvanometer. It is represented by the symbol k, Its unit is ampers per division, Define current sensitivity of a galvanometer. ‘The deflection produced in the galvanometer when a unit current is passed through it, is calle current sensitivity of the galvanometer.Comprehensive Pi, . Plug the probes black in - and red in + 5. Select D.C. volt, by turning the selector switch to range 10 ‘Touch and press other ends of probes such that red is 0” b: black on—[Fig. (b)] and not the reading: n terminals marked 4V,2Vin tial difference, 6 V batter’ V D.C. volts. attery terminal marked yy succession and note readings, 5, Insert red probe it sceanbeasa (c) A.C. Volts 4. Turn the selector AC. (200 volt). ds to two terminals of A.C. source of potential +, ‘Touch and press the probes’ other ent le and note the reading. ; 3. Use red probes in terminals 4 Vand 2 Vin succession and record the reading, 1 (a) Continuity of given circuit (Big. () | range MQ. | 1, Set the selector switch to ohm, probes at A and B; full scale deflection indicates contin >, ‘Touch and press the ends of wminals B and C and termini 5. Similarly check in succession the continuity between tel and D. Never place the probes’ ends between terminals connected with the terminals of th: dit ‘tal electronic multimeter for continuity test, yotor is set to mark 0 and a buzzes? Indigi wien probes are connected to ends of components tested. OBSERVATIONS (a) For Measurement of Resistance : Resistor | Colour and Codes of Rings Value and tolerance Valueby ‘ [wed [a [2 3 7 | from colour code (W) multimeter (W) Di” R, | Orange | Red | Brown | Silver | 32x10 10% 330 ’ R R,‘ORE: ) Measurement of Vo}; ( 97 | Difference in Voltage | | teeing an vote, marked V-V, (votty rent, voltage or resistance to be measured and set it on appropriate range. 3. If range of the parameter measuredis not known, start: with maximum. For measuring V, never connect more than maximum 600 V,Comprehensine Py, 100 @§ ACTIVITYS @ rs in ra st variation in potential drop with length ofawire for astegg,,, AIM: To study the variat APPARATUS AND MATERIAL iometer. i Apparatus. Potentiomet ; 4.5 V battery or battery eliminator, a low Tesistay, Material. A fully charged 4. a set-squay voltmete )-3.0 V) i -way key, a jockey, I f range (0-3.0 V), an ammeter (0-3) A, a one-way voltmeter of .0 V), wires and a piece of sand paper. THEORY Fe tentiometer with wire of uniform material density and aon (cross-sect, ea i the wire, carrying a steady current, potential drop is proportional to the length of We have, Vel > Vek Vv k= 7 = constant where kis the drop of potential per unit length. It is called the potential gradient, DIAGRAM i =| | 300 cm LY 100 cm Oe Studying variation in potential drop with length of a wire, PROCEDURE ero end (P) of the Potentiometer and the negative pole through a one-way key, an ammeter ce rheostat to the other end (Q) of the Potentiometer, 4. Connect the Positive terminal of the voltmeter to the end P of the Potentiometer and the negative terminal to the jockey, 5. Touch the end of the jockey to the end Qof the Potentiometer, a102 ei § é 4, hk Length, (em) From equations (1) and (2), (3) tan 0 =k ‘The slope of straight line OB gives the value of potential gradient. RESULT (‘The graph between Vand [is a straight line. Therefore, the potential drop along the length o wire is directly proportional to its length. Vel Vek (i) ‘The potential drop per unit length of wire is, k= @@ activity 6 &@ | AIM: To draw the diagram of agiven open circuit: comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper orde a Vem. and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram. APPARATUS AND MATERIAL A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6 V), rheostat, two resistors, one-way key, D.C. ammet (0-3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0-3) V. THEORY An open circuit is the combination of primary components of electric circuit in a such a mat? that on closing the circuit, no current is drawn from the battery.101 atte Close the key nd set the theostat such that the voltmeter gives full scale deflection (3 V) sie Touch the jockey at end P at 0 (zero) cm. The voltmeter will give zero deflection © Touch the jockey at marks separated by 50 cm length of wire. Note the voltmeter reading in each case. Record your observations in tabular form as given ahead. opsBRVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Range of voltmeter =3V Least count of voltmeter =0.05V Zero correction of voltmeter ‘Range of ammeter =03A =0.05A L.C. of ammeter ‘Steady current shown by ammeter Table fox length and potential drop Length of i Voltmeter © Potentiometer wire 1 (om) ® i i 0 0 = 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 ee xreaneen nls CALCULATION FROM GRAPH Plota graph choosing a suitable scale, {long x-axis as shown in figure. From graph, for the values of potential drop V along y-axis and length a) But, wu)Battery le oe | . 1 Rheostat | U nknown resistance | an teite i Y I€ the circuit is not work E orking, i Onerart ae it can have many cau; i : ses, Som (iii) Exhausted battery, (i) Loose ota tind of them are: : S. Wh Im Proper connection of component: S. HHP [INF Rheostat Resistance oO wo Tabarrect Grenits Resistance coll one-way Key net yi ted in proper onde?) ot connect Voltmeter yam components" Incorrect circuit iadsoe 150 7 ea EXPERIMENT 5 = Je of minimum deviation fora given prism by plotting a graph p, ‘tine AIM: To determine ang! angle of incidence and the ‘angle of deviation. APPARATUS Drawing board, graph paper and a protractor. awhite sheet of paper Pris™ drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, off, -ffceg, THEORY “The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by, | A+D, 4 sin\ 2 ; n=—T AL : ale | w (3) where, D, is angle of minimum deviation and Ais angle of the prism. DIAGRAM R, N, R Ne Ry No Py 35° 40° P, 45° On A B \[Qe A x BY 8 S Fy Fay, Si s/s Ds Py >. Py kK, Ty Te Fig. Refraction through prism at different angles. PROCEDURE pins of £208 paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing idle of the 1, Fix a white sheet of parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the mi 2, Drawa straight line XX’104 ; Compretenatee Practical PRYS! PROCEDURE »toy_ It should be connected in series, with the battery eliminator. sevey, It should be connected in parallel to the resistor. It should be connected in series (in place of resistance coil) with the battery, ce coi! It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostat). One-way key. It should be connected in series to the battery eliminator. Correct cirenit diagram (Components connected in proper order) ir Dry cell a e Connecting an ia WW wire v | _@ Nore @ (ii) Corrected circuit diagram PRECAUTIONS | Draw the given open circuit in auxillary notebook. Check which components are connected in proper order and which are not. Take out the key plug before connecting the components. lel across the points for which you need to measure th ‘Always connect the voltmeter in parall potential difference. Always connect the ammeter in series.= —_ ; HANS pay ark points QQ), Qs on the stag rent Liquid : aight prawnormals N.O,,N.Q,NQ, meh Tne XX’ at suitable di 154 5, Draw straight lines R.Q., RQ, "Points Q.,Q.,, hanes fsbo Sn, i: ” yh os 4: . 48 shown in di; angles on the PAPE) Pespectivly wih ~ making anges ofa ae diagram normals 40", Markone corner of the prism as A a, d Scheer ind take it prism with its refracting face AB in the s the edge of the prism for all the ob: lin e observations 60° (write value of the 7, Puta 3, Mark the boundary of the prism, XX’ and point Q, in the middle of AB. . more office pin P, g, Fix two OF pin P, and, verti 0 2 Vertically on the li ghould be 10 mm or more, line R,Q,. The distance between the pins at the images of poi 10. eae Point P, and P, through face AC, 11, Clase your left eve and bring open right eye in line with th fe two images. Fix two office pins P, and P " aA 3 and P, vertically, and 10 cm apart such th: i p, and P, and images of, andP none stag i at the open right eye sees pins ine, sp, Remove pins P, and, and enctdetheirpiks on hep aper. at steps 7 to 13 with poi 14, Repeat steps 7 tc th points Q,, Q,,...fori= 40°, .., 60°. Din different cases om 12. Jo measure "raw straight lines through poi 15 te igh points P, and P, (pin pricks) to obtain emergent rays $,T, S,T, Ty = 16, Produce TS, TS» T,,S,, ... inward in the boundary of the prism to meet produced incident rays R,Q,R,Qy RQy at Points Fy FF, 17, Measure angles K,F,S,, KF,S, KFS, ~ These give angles of deviation D,, D,,D. 1g. Write values of these angles on the paper. To measure A 19, Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives angle A. 20. Record your observations. _ OBSERVATIONS “Angle ofincidence A | Tjnigle of deviation 2D 35° 40° 45° 50°ee 3, Mark points Q,,Q,,Q, PAN Liquid on the stra, ; lght li rah normals N,Q,,N ahtline xy 4 Draw 1Q N,Q, Ni Ale distances of about § cm, at suit +01 onan ¢, Draw straight lines RQ, RQ, 7 1 95.Q, angles on the paper) Tespectively with th king angles of mals, 's shown in diagram, Bt a0? gle 7. (writ of the g. Mark one corner of the prism as A and t (vrtite value of th 7, Puta prism with its refracting face ap inthe line xy’ ll the observations. g, Mark the boundary ofthe prim, and point Q, in the middle of AB . he ie between the two Pins should Not be legs than 10 mm, | . aie heads should be marked to Tepresent the incident and 3 4 Used for al] the observati 5. emergent Tays same angle of Prism should be . The ions, URCES OF ERROR s0 i | s, Pin pricks may be thick, 2, Measurement of angles may be Wrong,452 ¥ CALCULATIONS ; § es r ve iad angle of deviation 2D by taking 4 alo a nA Camgle of minimum deviation D,, corre he 1 Orr spo 2 Plot a graph between angle of and 2D alone Yas, From this graph find the value of : to the lowest point of the graph. \ | Lagat | fic © | ppopaste GRAPH BETWEEN 4) and 20 Joitaid-r|gealb | pet ad | rt [ideale xaxls 1? Japivsions| tft | fee ale Lyeaxlb 124 Brisionst—-—-poi hey Cet leet LL birt [eclial ‘Tadel | 3 (0) > le of deviat ao oer gprs’ abr 45" 56H" 657 -Anale.ot incidence (i) | 1 Fig. Graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation. eta Let the value of angle of ‘minimum deviation, D,, = sn + ‘Then, n= RESULT (i) -D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence () increases, the angle of deviation | decreases, attains a minimum value (D,,) and then starts increasing for further increase! of incidence. (ii) Angle of minimum deviation, D, (iii) Refractive index of the material of the prism, nDIAGRAM s vEE v F| |.—R, s ap, P (a) (b) () Fig. Real and apparent thickness. *ROCEDURE 5 Adjustment of travelling microscope | +. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a window so that sufficient light fale 4 y it, 2. Adjust the levelling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes horizontal. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye piece so that the cross-wire clearly visible. 4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope. Other steps | Make a black-ink cross-mark on the base of the microscope. The mark will serve as pointk Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P, so that there is no pata the cross-wires and the image of the mark P. 7. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings (R,) on the vertical scale. Place the glass slab of least thickness over the mark P. a Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image P, of the cross-mark. Note the reading (R,) on the vertical scale as before (Step 7).gore wm) an ye jaleulation MMansparen Liguid (2 jpbSPQ,2SPQ i (being ster i sini « 8Q ate angle of PQ 1 ASP% SPQ =r (being sine «SQ SPM angle of) ‘ Ra prom Snell's law, forlight 21N8 fom lasso sg, 2,» “ML. SYrQ n,Q sinr POAT: or Art ate PQ foraray received normally along Psy, ister " Qisvery dose tos, eg PQ=PSandP.Qeps PS. 7 Ryo pgs eels and a PS Apparent tickness Real thickness of slab Apparent tickness of slab js is an important relati ‘This is an imp¥ tion. It is used for determination of: ‘refracti 5: the transparent glass slab, ctive index of the material of Tl EXPERIMENT 6 el aim: To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope. ‘ApPARATUS Three glass slabs of different thicknesses but same material, a travelling microscope and ropodium powder. ‘A slab is a piece of transparent material with rectangular faces. All faces are transparent and apposite faces are parallel. The dimension along whch the light wares inside the slab is called its thickness. ‘A Short Description of a Travelling Microscope It is a compound microscope fitted vertically on a vertical scale. It can be moved up and down, tanying a vernier scale moving along the main scale. the reading is taken by combiningmain sale and vier sae reading Inany position, [THEORY | Read Art. 8.09 Real thickness of slab i A tom relation, rent thickness of slab "* hppa| _ ade a few Particles of PEM Liquid $e ; Iyeopodinm “ he microscope further upward Powder ¢ . i ard and ; he reading (R,) on the vertical and focus 3 yve steps wi all scale apa 4 eat abo i with other glss liber, in (Step 7) eg observations in tabular form more thicknesse as given below, : On the surface of the slab . iton the particle near§ Re i asIONS AND CALCULATIONS jer constant — ; ss ) for vertical scale of mi icroscope = ss Table for Microsc: — FReading on vertical scalewhen | microscope i focussed ; assmark | Crose-mark | 1 eS sa een | cae |"me | a R(om) | _Ry(on) | ' Refractive index (R,-R,) (an) gut : WR () The ratio RoR con: Re fractive index of the mater stant. al ofthe glass slab - Gi) Tegives 7" properly removed. direction only to avoid back lash error. the parallax should be 1. In microscoper should be moved in UpP#t | 2, Themicroscope OR ‘The microscope scale may not be pr ents yivavoce SOURCES OF ERR! : operly calibrated: Define a slab. . Read Art. 8.07. . Define thickness of . Read Art. 8.07. Define lateral displacement eee aslab-Fig. 9.05. Gl =«CEXPERIMENT9 AIM: To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bia: 1s. APPARATUS A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resist theostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA sete, 0-100 wA ammeter, one-way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper. os: THEORY F chavacteristics. When the p-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to negative terminal of the battery then junctionis said to be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the y. At about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the current increases sudden s rapidly, is called cut in voltage beginning and then rapid) ‘The value of forward bias voltage, at which the forward current increase or threshold voltage. of high voltage battery and n-section of the diode is connect then junction is said to be reverse biased. When reverse bias voltage increases, remains almost constant with bias. But whe When the p-section of the diode is connected to negative termind ed to positive terminal of the same battery racteristics initially there is a very small reverse current flow, whid n reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently high valu the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown of junctio diode occurs (suddenly large current flow) is called zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. breakdown voltage may starts from one volt to several hundred volts, depending upon dopant dens and the depletion layer.Ifthe quantity of water 6 mall in the epherical ¢ ie, BC=PC and pe’ = PC’ From €q. (i) we 8° rc Real radius of curvaty eof mirror ae PC ister fears ror PROCEDURE Place the co vertical. Hold the optical needle horizontally inadamp stat al to 2f (Fis focal length)- Remove the ¢ the optical ne a distance equ Mark the real and inverted imaBe ° this image. wncave mirror om a horizontal surf Measure the distance (PO) using i £ the concave actual radius of curvature 0 5. Now add small quantity of water to the concave mir needle. wer the optical needle ‘Adjust the screw to upper OF lo vrallax between the needle andits ce (PC!) which is the apparent ra wur to five times and re 2 remove P 7. Measure distan 8, Repeat the experiment for fo OBSERVATIONS Rough focal length of the concave mirror, f= + table for refractive index (1) joncave mirror, B will bs e near to P. face (plane) such that its principle axis i is along ad so thatiits tip liesjust abow rethe 4 parallax between the needle and pg adle in the mirror and note the sea get metre scale. This measured distance 1S the or that will change the posi position of i imag and adjust its position from C toc’ tt shifted image is seen- dius of curvature of the concave mirror. cord readings. “Apparent radius of Ss. Actual radius: of curvature ® curvature (R') (int em) No. (nam) 4. I | | | __ CALCULATIONS Putting the observed values of actual radius R and apparent radius R’ in = the value of refractive index of the given medium. { | R Fade R ieS Stab nd Tansparen guia 165 ee suit refractive index of Water, j= qhe FE eet 9 Err UTIONS ABCA irror and surface of the wate, shoul baal be clamped Then arallax between the opti ‘the p: OF ERROR jURCES eedle may not be held horizontal eee may not be removed Properly, Par. Id be clean, Properly in the horizontal Position, cal Needle and its ‘mage should be Temoved properly. CTR: VIVAVOCE What is meant he onc 4EN BE8 Stay any, ind Trans | AIM: To find the refractive index of Parent Liquid EXPERIMENT 8 mm " ‘aliquid (vay APPARATUS 7 water) usinga concave mirror A concave mirror, a clamp stan stand lan opt watt Ptical needle, wate Tina beaker, one metre scale, plumb Clamp stand Concave miror Plane surface Fig. Refractive index of water Angle of incidence i = ZNDC' = ZBC'D Also, ZMDE = ZBCD = angle of refraction r Wehave, sini @ fe Sin DB/DB (from ABC'D and ABCD) DC Deg For normal viewing, D will be close to B. BC BC’ waif)YIAGRAM 173 _ Record your o! Potential Divider Potential Divider Caer +O +O +O +O +0 +0 +0 +0 4] Fig. p-n junction diode—reverse biased. For forward-bias Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram. Make all connections neat, clean and tight. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA). Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end. andinsert the key K. Voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA) will give zero reading. jas voltage (V,) of Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward-bi 0.1 V. Current remains zero. Increase the forward-bias voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current remains zero. (Itis due to junction potential barrier of 0.3 V). Increase V, to 0-4 V. Mill-ammeter records a small current. Increase V, in steps of 0. corresponding current. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly, tll V, becomes 0.7V. Make V,-0.72V-Thecurentincressessuldeny Ifthe V,increases beyond forward breakdown stage, much. Now take out the key at once. servations as given ahead. .2 V and note the «forward breakdown” stage: ‘This represents current does not change the forward!OBSERVATIONS For reverse-bias 12, Make circuit diagram 13. Make all connections neat, clean and tight. TAL Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (1A) j i i ider (rheostat) near positive end 1S. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheost i ney Fe veianctes (V) and micro-ammeter (WA) will give zero reading, ‘hel 16. Movethe contact towards negative end to apply areverse-bias voltage(V,) of } reverse current starts flowing. 17, Increase V;in steps of 0.2 V. Current increases first tad 20 V. Note the current. : s 18. Make V, = 25 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “reverse breayg, stage. Note the current and take out the key at once: 19. Record your observations as given ahead. as shown in diagram. Mate slowly and then rapidly tity iene Fe For forward-bias Range of voltmeter Least count of voltmeter Zero error of voltmeter Range of milli-ammeter Least count of milli-ammeter Zero error of milli-ammeter vd-bias voltage and forward current Vv Vv WV mA mA 1. Table for forwa: ‘Serial Nolof Obs!) TForward-biasVoltageV,(V) Forward current, (ma) SRG) 5i(2) coarioing ca ot] @) 1. 0 2. 01 2 0.2 4 0.3 5. 0.4 05 6 0.6 1 7 08 2 8. 1.0 3 9. 12, 5 10. 14 1S 11. 16 10 ie 18 As 13. 2.0 20 14. 2.2 25 15. 24 ‘Note. The readings are given as a sample.)——— lc Pl CQ This graph is called forward-bias characteristic Curve of a junction diode. FORWARD-BIAS CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A JUNCTION py, 0 Scale X-axis : 1 em = 0.2 Vol V, Y" Yeaxis : 1m =5 mA of I, 50 45 Forward current (I) in mA 0204 | o8 12 i : Forward bias voltage (Ve) in V—— 3 Fig. Characteristic curve of a junction diode (forward-bias). From graph, for change from point A to B, AV, = (2.4- 2.0)V = 0.4 V, AI, = (30-20)mA =10 mA Hence, junction resistance for forward-bias, For reverse-bia: Plot a graph between reverse-bias voltage V, (column 2) and reverse current I, (coun ing V, along X-axis and J, along Y-axis,is called reve apis raph is called reverse-bins characte 1 istic curve o ad 1 junction diode _|-REVERSE-BIAS CHAR, CTE Scale Ristig \ Cl _Xeaxis 1.0m =50 Vory, VIVE OF & Junction oy Yaris: 1em= 5, Aoi." ove Hatt yeh Reverse. 188 Voltage, 20 415 Va) ny X25 fo 10 75 (45,7) | Fig. Characteristic curve ofa junction diode (reverse-bias), From graph, for change from point A to B, AV, = | 7.0-5.0|V=2V,41,=| 2-1|pA=1pa Hence junction resistance for reverse bias, AV, 2. ne. ‘A 7 ya “2% 10tobms. ‘RESULT Junction resistance for forward-bias = 40 ohm Junction resistance for reverse-bias = 2 x 10° ohm. PRECAUTIONS 1, Allconnections should be neat, clean and tight. 2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit s not being used. 3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied. 4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied. SOURCES OF ERROR 1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty. carelessness of the student. | 2. Error may occur due to propery 3. ‘The terminals of battery may not be connected183 jde or an LED conducts only when forward biased and in reverse biasing, there is no ferent en a diode is in working order, it will allow the current to flowin one direction, when o forward biased. 90 se the selector switch and put the multimeter in ohm range (R). insert the metallic end of the back lead in common terminal of the multimeter and that ag the red inthe terminal marked 2 |. ggidireetional flow of current pe case of junction diode 1. Gonnectthesvematkedendofthedindeto gy ie pots ye terminal of 6 V variable D.C. battery probes of adjusted to minimum voltage. mutimeter _] : | Select the D.C. current at 10 mA range by Red o : | . | using the selecorswitch. Insertoneofthe __Oiede = [ smetallicends of probe in terminal (+) and ees | tallic end int i * the black metallic end into the terminal oo marked common. current in a diode. 4, Connect the other metallize end of red probe to the free end of the diode and the metallic end ofblack probeinto the -ve terminal of thebattery eliminator and read the value of current by varying the output ofthe eliminator. Since the diode is forward biased, it allows the current to pass. 4, Now reverse the terminals of the diode such thatthe end marked -veis athigher potential and the one marked +is at lower potential. Again observe the current in multimeter on the appropriate D.C. milliampere scale, No current readingin the multimeter would indicate that the diode allows the flow of current in one direction only, ie, the current is unidirectional ina diode. 5. Now replace the diode by the LED and repeat the steps to establish that an LED also allows the flow of current only when it is forward biased as well as emits light. () Checking whether diode, transistor in IC is in working order Adiode will conduct only in one direction i.e, first connect the ends of diode to the two metal ‘ds ofthe probes and reverse the connecting points. Ifit conducts in one case, then diode isin ‘Working order. If conducts in both cases or does not conduct in bth cases, then itis damaged. =