EXPERIMENT-1 difference versus current Apparatus: A resistance wire (of different material such as copper, iron, constantan, etc.,) a voltmeter (0-3)V and an ammeter(0-3)A of appropriate range, a battery(battery eliminator), a rheostat, a meter scale, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand Paper Formula: The resistivity (p) of the given wire is given by nD?R p= “G7 ohm — meter n=3.14 D = Diameter of the wire (meter) R = Resistance of the conductor (ohm) L=Length of the wire (meter) Battery Unknown resistance wire > Observation: 1. Length Length of the resistance wire 1 =40 em 2. Range Range of the given ammeter = 0-SmARange of the given voltmeter = 0-5V 3. Least count Least count of ammeter =Nil Least count of voltmeter =Nil 4, Zero error Zero error in ammeter, e1 = 40mA Zero error in voltmeter, e2 =75mV 5. Zero correction Zero correction for ammeter, C Zero correction for ammeter, C2= Procedure: Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram. Clean the ends of the connecting wire with sand paper to remove the insulations, if any. Make neat, clean and tight connection according to the circuit diagram. While making connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards the +ve terminal of the battery. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, ifany. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see the ammeter and voltmeter are working properly. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes through the resistance coil or the resistance wire. Note down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter and current I from ammeter. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full divisions readings and not in fraction. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter. ). Take a least three sets of independent observations. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals stretch it and find its length by the meter scale. 12. Record your observations.13. Next repeat the above steps by taking other wires. Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings: S.No | Ammeter Reading (mA) _ | Voltmeter Reading, V (m V) Observed Corrected | Observed Corrected Io T=Iy+Cy V V=Vy+C, 90 50 185 110 100 205 130 245 170 0 70 225 150, 80 90 265 190 100 285 210 ‘Mean(R) =2.140(ohm) Model Graph: R= 170/30-2.13 ohm © x 8 t 0.31 é Av= 170 a ov 02 03 0a oS 6 o7 potential difference ——> AL tand a coto =Calculation: 3.14 = 0.85 x 107% (meter) R= 2.14(hm) L= 40x 107? (meter) mD?R AL _ 3.14 x (0.85 x 1073)? x 2.14 ~ 4x 40x10 p p= 3.034 x 10-°Ohm meter By Graphical method n=3.14 D= 0.85 x 10-3 (meter) R= 2.13 (ohm) L= 40x 107? (meter) _ mD?R PSL 3.14 x (0.85 x 1073)? x 213 e 4x 40x 10-7 p= 3.02 x 10-6 Ohm meter Result: (i) Resistivity of the wire is p = 3.034 x 10- Ohm meter. ii) The graph between V and Lis a straight line,EXPERIMENT-2 fo find resistance of a given wire using meter bridge. Apparatus: A meter bridge, leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires. Formula: The unknown resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by 100 — DR (200=DR ah Where, R known resistance from the resistance box in the left gap(ohm) L—Length of the meter bridge wire from zero ends up to balance point. (Meter) Known Unknown resistance resistance GalvanometerObservations: Table for length (1) and unknown resistance (r) Resistance G00 DR Calculations: (00-DR T _ (00-DR n 7 (200 — 59) x2 pS 1 = 2.87(ohm) = Tita brats _2.0742.66+2.694252 _ + 4 . 685 (ohm) Procedure: Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram, . Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined I the right gap between C and B. Take care that no parts of the forms a loop. . Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B. |. Make all the other connections a shown in the circuit diagram. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K. . Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in the opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacherand rectify the fault. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the galvanometer =when the jockey is nearly in the middle fo the wire (i.e between 45 to 55 cm) 10. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know balancing length, AD=1 11. Take at least four sets of observations in the same by changing the value of R in steps. 12. Record your observations Result: The value of unknown resistance r = 2.685 (ohm)EXPERIMENT-3 Co verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using meter bridge Apparatus: A meter bridge, leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires. Formula: (@ The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by 100 — DR (200= DR ay Where, R — resistance from the resistance box in the left gap L—Length of the meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance point. ‘When two resistances rj and rz are connected in series, then their combined resistance, Ro=n +r0hm Where, R — known resistance (ohm) rz — unknown resistance of the coils in series (ohm) 1—Length of the meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance point (cm)Observations: Table for length (1) and unknown resistance (r) Resistance from resistance box, R (ohm) Procedure: For Resistance 1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram. 2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined I the right gap between C and B. Take care that no parts of the forms a loop. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand ga between A and B. . Make all the other connections a shown in the circuit diagram. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. F the galvanometer shows deflections in the opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and rectify the fault.Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the galvanometer =when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire (i.e between 45 to 55 em) ). Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know balancing length, AD |. Take at least four sets of observations in the same by changing the value of R in steps and Record your observations for each resistances. Mark the two resistance coils as ry and r2 To find r; and r2 proceed same way as above mentioned method. Connect the two coils 1 and rin series as shown in figure in the right gap of Meter Bridge and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets of observations. Record your observations as follows. Calculations: 100 — DR {200= DR _ 400 = 60) x1 ~ 40 7, = 0.66 (ohm) t% Resistance in series (100 ~ 80.5) x1 ~ 195 1 = 4.12 (ohm) (By experimental) rytrgtry _41246.83+7.65 yy = Tatigtts atunsomee76s — 2. 67(ohm) Mean Resistance in series R, =r, +7, ohm R, = 1.36 + 1.19 = 2.54 ohm (Bytheoretical)Result: Experimental and theoretical values of R.are nearest value. Hence law of resistances in series is verified.EXPERIMENT-4 Aim: To verify the laws of combination (Parallel) of resistances using meter bridge Apparatus: A meter bridge, leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires. Formula: (i) The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by 100 —DR (100 ap Where, R —resistance from the resistance box in the left gap L— Length of the meter bridge wire from zero ends up to balance point. (ii) When two resistances r; and rz are connected in parallel, then their combined resistance 11 Ry =—+—ohm nt Where, R — known resistance (ohm) n&r2 — unknown resistance of the coils in Parallel (ohm) length of the meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance point (em) GalvanometerObservations: Table for length (1) and unknown resistance (r) Resistance Coil rand ry (parallel) Calculations: (100 -R T ohm _ 00-60) x1 - 0 7, = 0.66 (ohm) _ 400 = 57) x1 ~ B 1, = 0.75(ohm) =+=ohm nor 1 1 meta"Ry = 0.713 ohm (By Calculation) Resistance in series _ (200-70) x1 9 Ty = 0.428 (ohm) (By experimental) = Matratrs 0428+ 0896+ 112 3 3 .81 (ohm) Procedure: Mark the two resistance coils as r) and r2 To find r1 and r3. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram, Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined I the right gap between C and B. Take care that no parts of the forms a loop. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B. Connect the two coils r; and r2 in parallel as shown in figure in the right gap of meter Bridge and find the resistance of this combination. Make all the other connections a shown in the circuit diagram. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in the opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and rectify the fault 10. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D. 11. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the galvanometer =when the jockey is nearly in the middle fo the wire (i.e between 45 to 55 cm) 12. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know balancing length, AD= 13, Take at least four sets of observations in the same by changing the value of R insteps and Record your observations +. Mark the two resistance coils as ri and r2 To find r1 and r2 proceed same way as above mentioned method. Connect the two coils ri and r» in Parallel as shown in figure in the right gap of Meter Bridge and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets of observations. Record your observations as follows. Result: Experimental and theoretical vales of Rare same. Hence law of resistances in parallel is verified.EXPERIMENT-5 Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure of merit. Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000 © and 200 0), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper Circuit Diagram [Circuit Diagram ; (i) For half detection method For figure of merit K, £ | Fig. 7.1 : Resistance of gahvanometer Fig. 72: Figure of mest Formula: 1. The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method is given by Where, R ~ resistance connected in series with the galvanometer S - Shunt re 2. The figure of merit is given by E Es (ROO (Aldiv) Where, E -emf of the cell 0 — Deflection produced with resistance R (divi(i) Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half-deflection method Galvanometer Resistance R | Deflection in the | Shunt Half resistance (a) Galvanometer | resistance | deflection 6="S nm ©) S (2) : hes 5500 24 90 91.49 6000 20 90 91.37 6500 18 90, 91.26 7000 16 90 91.17 7500 14 90 91.09 Mean G = 91.27 (ohm) (ii) Table for figure of merit S.No | Number of | Emfof the cell cells (battery | E(volts) or iv Figure of merit eliminator) | reading of the K=— battery ree eliminator (Aldivy 24 2.23X105 20 2.46 X10 18 2.53X10 16 2.64 X10° Mean k = 2.46 x 10-5(A/div) Calculations (Resistance of Galvanometer: RxS _5500%90 _ 495000 = 91.49 (ohm) ‘5 ='3500-90 91.37(ohm) RxS _ 6500x90 ae = 91.26 (ohm) RxS _ 7000 x90 R-S ~ 7000-90 — 6910 G = 91.17 (ohm)RxS _7500%90 _ 675000 ‘R-S ~ 7500-90 7410 91.09 (ohm) 91.49 + 91.37 + 91.26 + 91.17 + 91.09 5 Go G = 91.27 (ohm) (B) Figure of merit of the galvanometer: E 3 3 () K = Gao = Geoaroxz72a = Toangase = 2-23 x 10° A/Div ae 3 3 ~ (R+ey0 (6000+9127)20 — 12182540 i) K = 2.46 x 10°5 A/Div 3 3 = Reape = Gxvasorz7 Hs ~ Tisearas ~ 2-53 x 10° A/Div ih 5 ay k= (R+G)@~ (7000+9127)16 11346032 2.64% 10°" A/Div 2.23 x 10-5 +2.46 x 10-5 +2.53 x 10-5 +2.64x 10% rd K = 2.46 x 10-5 Amp/div Procedure: (a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method: Make the connections accordingly as shown in the circuit diagram. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight Take out the high resistance (say 2000 ohm) from the resistance box R and insert the key Ki only Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale . Note the deflection. Let it be @ . Insert the key Ke also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S, such that deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step Sie., 0/2. Note the value of resistance S8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting S every time. (b) Figure of merit 9. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F by a voltmeter by connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and ve of voltmeter with ve of the cell. Let it be E. Make connections as in circuit diagram. . Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection 0 (say 30 divisions) when the circuit is closed. Note the values of resistance R and deflection 6. Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with difference voltages like 2,4,6,8 volts from battery eliminator. Find the figure of merit k using the formula. Result: (@ Resistance of given galvanometer = 91.27 (ohm) (ii) Figure of merit of given galvanometer = 2.46 x10* A/DivEXPERIMENT-6 Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope Apparatus: Travelling microscope, glass slab, chalk powder, marker, white paper sheet, ete., Diagram: fr. e Real and apparent thickness ‘The arrangement of the travelling microscope with slab &lycopodium powder Formul Refractive index of glass slab is given by real depth «* Gpparent depth n= %=4(No unit) as Where, Real depth = Ry — Ry Apparent depth = Rj — RyObservations: > Least count of travelling microscope = 0.001cm or 0.001 x 10-2m > Range of main scale = 15em > Total no. of division in main scale = 300 15 > Minimum reading of main scale = = 0.05em > Total no. of division in vernier scale = 50 Table: Reading of Microscope focused on: Reading on the microscope Refractive Position ikacs of cross : i Index mark and | MSR) VSC voce ™ _ R= Ri slab xL MRR, (cm) C (cm) fs Re 1.59 L357 1.59 Cross-mark without slab (Ry) Cross-mark with slab (Ro) ‘Cross-mark with slab and| lycopodium. powder (Rs) Bis |S Fiz eg2 vse )me| 8) | ce | a | cv isan a | BREESE SSRs ‘Mean jt = 1.58 (no unit) Calculations: (Real depth = (Rs-Ri) = 8.748-6.607 = 2.141 Apparent depth = 2) =8.748-7.406 = 1.342 Refractive index, a = oe = 24 _ 4.59 (no unit) Real depth = (Rs-R1) Apparent depth = Refractive index, 4 = Ra Ra Real depth = (R3-Ry) = 8.753-6.704 = 2.049Apparent depth = (Rj-R2) =8.753-7.406 = 1.295 Refractive index, 4 = i = Be = 1.59 (no unit) 15941574159 Refractive index, = 5 1.58(no unit) Procedure: Adjustment of travelling microscope 1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a window so that sufficient light falls on it .. Adjust the leveling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes horizontal Make microscope horizontal, Adjust the position of the eye piece so that the cross are clearly visible. 4, Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope. Other steps 5. Make a black-ink cross-mark on the base of the microscope. The mark will serve as point P. 6. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P, so that there is no parallax between the cross-wires and the image of the mark P. 7. Note the main scale and the venier scale readings (Rj) on the vertical scale. 8. Place the glass slab of least thickness over the mark P. 9. Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image P1 of the cross ~ mark. 10. Note the reading (Ra) on the vertical scale as before (step 7). 11. Sprinkle a few particles of lyeopodium powder on the surface of the slab 12, Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the particle near S 13, Note the reading (Rs) on the vertical scale again (Steps 7) 14, Repeat above steps with other glass slab of more thicknesses. 15. Record observations in tabular form as given below. Result: (@ The ratio #—** is constant, Gi) The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as = 1.58 (no unit)EXPERIMENT-7 Aim: To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror Apparatus: A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in a beaker, an optical needle, an iron stand with base and clamp arrangement, plum line, plane glass slab, a spherometer, half meter scale etc., Formula: (i) The focal length F of the combination of lens is given by fi — focal length of the glass convex lens fy — focal length of the liquid lens Liquid lens formed is a Plano concave lens with R = R (radius of curvature of convex lens surface) Ro=00 (i) Lens maker’s formula, =(-)[E- (ny) Diagram Refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirrorTable : For distance of needle tip from lens and mirror: Distance of needle tip From the lens | From the lens Focal length surface surface x (em) x1 (em) X2(em) Without 10.1 10.9 Nquid 10.0 108 With 15.3 16.1 liquid 15.0 Bs Rough focal length of convex lens f= 10.2 em Radius of curvature R = 2f R=204 em Caleulations: 1-41 hoF R a_ ¢ 1 fh 1555" 104 1 == 0.0643 — 0.0962 = —0.0319 he =1446 n=1+fem n= 14+ (-204)(—0.0319) em n=1.65em Procedure (a) For focal length of convex lens 1. Take any one convex lens and find its rough focal length Take a plane mirror and place it on the horizontal base of the iron stand 2. 3. Place the convex lens on the mirror 4. Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally above the lens at distance equal to tits rough focal length.Bring the tip of the needle at the vertical principle axis of the lens, so the tip of the needle appears touching tip of its rough of its image. Move the needle up and down and remove the parallax between tips of the needle and its image. Measure the distance between tip and upper surface of the lens by using a plumb line and half meter scale. 8. Also measure the distance between tip and the surface of its plane mirror. (b) For focal length of the combination 9. Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the convex lens over it with its same face above as before (A plano concave lens is formed between plane mirror and convex lens) 10. Repeat steps 6, 7 and 8. 11. Record your observation as below. (©) For radius of curvature of convex lens surface. Result The refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror n= 1.65 em