6

INDEX

‘ DATE NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT SIGN

1 Ohm's Law
2 Metre Bridge-I
3 Metre Bridge-II
4 Half-Deflection
5 Optical Bench _ Convex lens
6 Liquid Lens
7 P-N Junction
8 Prism

1
EXPERIMENT NO 1

OHM'S LAW

(right side of your record book)

Aim
To determine resistivity of two given wires by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.

Apparatus
A resistance wire, a voltmeter (……..) V and an ammeter (…….) A of
appropriate range, a battery (battery eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale,
one way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory and formula

According to the Ohm’s law

Where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic of the

material of wire.
Hence, the specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire,

If 'r' is the radius of the wire, then the cross sectional area, A = πr². Then the
specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire is,

or

2
2
πR D
ρ=
4l

Procedure

 Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement

diagram.
 Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper to remove the
insulation, if any.
 Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram.
While making connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of
voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards the +ve terminal of the
battery.
 Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the
zero error, if any.
 Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that ammeter and
voltmeter are working properly.'’
 Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable
current passes through the resistance coil or the resistance wire.
 Note down the value of potential difference V” from voltmeter and
current I from ammeter.
 Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter
show full divisions readings and not in fraction.
 Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.

 Take at least five sets of independent observations.

 Record your observations.

Result:
 Resistivity of the material of the wire(nichrome), ρ =
 Resistivity of the material of the wire (constantan), ρ =

Precautions
 The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
 Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
Sources of error

 The instrument screws may be loose.

 Thick connecting wires may not be available.

(left side of your record book)

3
Circuit diagram

Observations

1. Length
Length of the nichrome wire l =

Length of the copper wire l =

2. Range
Range of the given ammeter = …
Range of the given voltmeter = …

2. Least count
Least count of ammeter = 0.
Least count of voltmeter = 0

3. Zero error
Zero error in ammeter =
Zero error in voltmeter =

Nichrome wire

4
serial no Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading V (V)
(Ohm)
1
2
3
4

Mean value of resistance, R = Ω.

Length of the wire l = m

Diameter of the wire (D) = m

2
πR D
ρ=
4l

Constantan wire

serial no Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading V (V)

(Ohm)
1
2
3
4
Mean value of resistance, R =

Length of the wire l =

Diameter of the wire (D) =

PLOT the two Graphs on graph paper

5
6
EXPERIMENT NO -2

METRE BRIDGE

(right side of your record book)

Aim

To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge.

Apparatus
A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), Battery eliminator, a galvanometer, a
resistance box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a metre scale and
connecting wires

Theory
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by

where, R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance
X in the right gap of metre bridge. I cm is the length of metre bridge wire
from zero end up to balance point.
(ii) Specific resistance (p) of the material of the given wire is given by

where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.

‫خ‬

Procedure
For Resistance

 Arrange the apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram.

 Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the
right gap between C and B. Take care that no part of the wire forms a
loop:
 Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and
B.
 Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the resistance box, plug the
key K.

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 Touch the jockey gently first at the left end and then at the right end of
the bridge wire. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite
directions, the connections are correct.
 slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is
null point D.
 Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that
there is no deflection in the galvanometer.
 Note position of point D to know length AD = l.
 Take at least four sets of observations in the same way by changing the
value of R in steps.
 Measure the diameter of the wire at least at four places with the help of
screw gauge.
 Record your observations as given in the tables.

Result

The value of unknown resistance X =

The specific resistance of the material of the given wire =

Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.

Sources of error

1. The instrument screws may be loose.

2. The plugs may not be clean.

(Left side of your record book)

Circuit diagram
8
Observations
Length of given wire L = m

Table for unknown resistance (X)

S. Reading of Balancing (100- Unknown

No. resistance Box length (l) l) resistance
(R)  (cm) (cm) X=
R (100−l)
l

1
2
3
4
5

Mean ‘x’ =
2
xπ D
Calculations ρ=
4L

EXPERIMENT NO 3

9
METRE BRIDGE-II
(right side of your record book)
Aim

To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a

metre bridge.

Apparatus
A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), Battery eliminator, a galvanometer, a
resistance box, a jockey, a one-way key, two resistance wires, a metre scale
and connecting wires

Theory
(i) The unknown resistance r is given by
( 100−l ) R
r=
l
where, R is known resistance placed in the left gap and l is the length of the
metre bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.

(ii) when two resistances r 1 and r 2 are connected in series, then their
combined resistance

R s=r 1 +r 2

Procedure

1. Mark the two resistance coils as r 1 and r 2

2. To find r1 and r2 proceed same way as in Experiment 1. (If r 1 and r2 are

not known.)

3. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in series as shown in figure in the right gap
of metre bridge and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least
three sets of observations.

4. Record your observations.

Result

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Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rs
are same. Hence, the law of resistances in series is verified.

Precautions

3. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

4. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.

Sources of error

3. The instrument screws may be loose.

4. The plugs may not be clean.

(Left side of your record book)

Circuit diagram

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Observations

Sl.NO Combinations Resistance R() l(cm) (100-l) Unknown Mean

cm resistance X)

R (100−l)
X=
l

1 r1

2 r2

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3 r 1 and r 2
In series

CALCULATIONS

Experimental value of Rs =

Theoretical value of Rs =

EXPERIMENT NO 4

HALF-DEFLECTION

(RIGHT side of your record book)

Aim

To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to

find its figure of merit.

Apparatus
A galvanometer, a battery , two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two
one-way keys , connecting wires

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Theory

Procedure
(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

 Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.

 See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
 Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R
and insert the key K1 only.
 Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number
and within the scale.
 Note the deflection. Let it be θ.
 Insert the key also and without changing the value of R, adjust the
value of S, such that deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly
half the value obtained in step 5 i.e., θ/2.
 Note the value of resistance S.
 Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and
adjusting S every time.
(b) Figure of merit

Find the figure of merit k using the formula.

Result

Resistance of given galvanometer = Ω

Figure of merit of given galvanometer = ( A /¿)

Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.

Sources of error

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1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.
2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.

(Left side of your record book)

Circuit diagram

Observations and Calculations

Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method

S.No Resistanc Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanomete

e the resistance deflection r resistance
galvanomete
R (ohm) r S (ohm) θ/2 RS
G=
R−S
θ
1
2
3
4
5

Mean=101.25 Ω

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Table for figure of merit of the galvanometer where E=

S.No Resistanc Deflection in the G (Ω) Figure of Merit

e galvanometer
E
k=
R (ohm) θ (div) (R+G)θ

(A/div)
1
2
3
4
5

Mean=( A /¿)

EXPERIMENT NO 5
OPTICAL BENCH 1

(RIGHT side of your record book)

AIM

To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer
uprights with lateral movement), a convex lens with lens holder, two optical
needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle and a half metre scale.

Theory
The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is

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where,
f = focal length of convex lens
u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.
According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive value.
Hence, f comes positive.

uv
f=
u+v

Procedure
To determine rough focal length

 Determine rough focal length of the convex lens

 Clamp the holder with the lens in a fixed upright and keep the upright at
the 50 cm mark.
 Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the
length of the optical bench.
 Keep the upright fixed in this position throughout.
To set the object needle
 Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O). Mount it in outer
laterally moveable upright near zero end.
 Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cms)
nearly 1.5 times the obtained rough focal length of the lens.
 Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line
through the optical centre of the lens.
 Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle
upright.
To set the image needle
 With the left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end
of the optical bench. An inverted and enlarged image of the object
needle will be seen. The tip of the image must lie in the middle of the
lens.
 Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in the fourth upright near
the other end of the optical bench.
 Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with
the tip of the image when seen with right open eye.

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 Move the eye towards the right. The tips will get separated. The image
tip and the image needle tip have parallax.
 Remove the parallax tip to tip.
 Note the position of the index mark on base of the image needle
upright.
 Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright of the
lens, the object needle and the image needle in the table against
observation 2.

 Record all the observations as given ahead.

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from

uv
1. focal length from f = = cm
u+v

2. u-v graph = cm

Precautions

1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as
the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping an eye at a
distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

(LEFT SIDE OF YOUR RECORD BOOK)

18
Ray diagram

Observations
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = 10 cm

sl u (cm) v(cm) uv
f=
u+v

(cm)
1

Mean f = cm

Expected shape of the graph

EXPERIMENT NO 6

LIQUID LENS

(RIGHT side of your record book)

19
AIM

To find refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane

mirror.

Apparatus
A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in a beaker, an optical
needle, an iron stand with base and clamp arrangement, half metre scale
etc.

Theory
If f1 and f2 be the focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens and F be
the focal length of their combination then,

Ff1
f 2=
f 1−¿ F ¿

Liquid lens formed is a planoconcave lens with R 1= R (radius of curvature of

convex lens surface), R2 =∞

Procedure
(a) For focal length of convex lens

 Take any one convex lens and find its rough focal length.
 Take a plane mirror and place it on the horizontal base of the iron
stand.
 Place the convex lens on the plane mirror.

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 Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it
horizontally above the lens at distance equal to its rough focal length.
 Bring the tip of the needle at the vertical principal axis of the lens, so
that tip of the needle appears touching the tip of its image.
 Move the needle up and down and remove parallax between tips of the
needle and its image.
 Measure distance between tip and upper surface of the lens by using a
plumb line and half metre scale.
 Also measure distance between tip and the surface of its plane mirror.

(b) For focal length of the combination

 Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the
convex lens over it with its same face above as before (A piano concave
liquid lens is formed between plane mirror and convex lens).
 Repeat steps 6, 7 and 8.
 Record your observations as given below.

RESULT :

The refractive index of the given liquid is =

Precautions

1. The liquid taken should be transparent.

2. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.

Sources of error

1. Liquid may not be quite transparent.

2. The parallax may not be fully removed.

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(LEFT SIDE OF YOUR RECORD BOOK)

Observations

1. Rough focal length of convex lens = cm.

Table for distance of needle tip from lens and mirror

Arrangemen Distance of needle tip Focal

t From lens From x +x length (c m)
Mean x= 1 2
surface x 1 plane 2
mirror x 2 cm
Without
liquid
With liquid

Calculations

1 Ff1
f 2=
f1 f 1−F

f 2=¿

R
n=1+
f2

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n=¿

EXPERIMENT NO 7

P-N JUNCTION
(RIGHT SIDE OF YOUR RECORD BOOK)

Aim
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias.
Apparatus
A p-n junction diode characteristics apparatus fitted with milliammeter(0-
10mA), voltmeter(0-3V) , two voltage variation knob and p-n junctions diode.

Theory
Forward bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected
to positive terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to negative
terminal of the battery then junction is said to be forward biased. With
increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the
beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the
current increases suddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the
forward current increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or threshold
voltage.

Procedure
For forward-bias

 Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

 Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
 Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter
(mA).
 Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end
and insert the key K. Voltmeter V and milli-ammeter mA will give zero
reading.
 Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward-bias
voltage (VF) of 0. 1 V. Current remains zero. Increase the forward-bias
voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current remains , (It is due to junction

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potential barrier of 0.3 V).Increase VF to 0.4 V. Milli-ammeter records a
small current.
 Increase VF in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current.
Current increases first slowly and then rapidly, till VF becomes 0.7 V.
 Make VF = 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents
“forward break-down” stage. If the VF increases beyond “forward
breakdown” stage, the forward current does not change much. Now
take out the key at once. Record your observations as given ahead.

Result
V-I characteristic curve is obtained
Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being
used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of error
1The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

2.The applied voltage is greater than breakdown voltage

(LEFT SIDE OF YOUR RECORD BOOK)

Observations
For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter =
Least count of voltmeter =
Zero error of voltmeter =
Range of millimeter

Least count of milli- Forward bias voltage Forward bias current

ammeter =

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0.02mA
Zero error of milli- V f (volt) I f (mA)
ammeter =S.No
1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

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