10. 11. 12. PHYSICS LAB MANUAL Instructions Keep this booklet safe upto your board practical exam. Circuit diagram. Tabular column, Ray diagram, calculations to be done on left page Put page numbers on top right corner of right page. Aim. Apparatus. Formula. Procedure, sources of error. precautions, result to be written on right page. Result must be underlined with black pen. Write all the readings in the tabular column with blue pen. Do the calculations neatly with pen on left page Graph must be plotted in the graph sheet provided in end of record note book. Scale of the graph must be properly written. Leave minimum 2 paper after completing 8 experiments and write the activities separately. Index must be written and completed with the page no, and given dates. Complete the index along with the dates given and page numbers.INDEX ‘S.No NAME OF THE EXPERIMENTS Page No. Meter Bridge-Determination of Unknown resistance of a wire ‘Meter bridge-Combination of resistances( Series) Resistance and Figure of merit of galvanometer Focal length of concave mirror Focal length of convex lens ‘Concave lens ‘Convex mirror ‘Ohm's law ACTIVITY Page No. ‘Assembling the components Correcting The Wrong Circuit Potential per Unit length Identification Of Electrical Components. Image Formation-Convex Lens Refraction Of Glass Slab1. Meter Bridge-Determination of Unknown resistance of a wire Aim: To find the resistance of the given wire using meter bridge Requirements: Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, resistance box, Battery Eliminator, jockey, unknown resistance wire, connecting wires. ‘Theory: Wheatstone's bridge: A meter bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone's bridge experiment as shown in figure. If there is no deflection in the galvanometer, then Olv ala P ,R QS which is the condition of balance of bridge. We use this relation to find the unknown resistance $ of the given material of wire. The wire whose resistance is to be found is connected in the arra CD. A resistance box from which a known resistance can be taken out is connected across the gap AB. A sensitive galvanometer followed by a jockey is connected between the points B and D so as to slide over the wire AD. A cell with suitable rheostat is connected across AC. 0 (2004)Observation: (To find the unknown resistance of the given wire: Value of Balancing Resistance known length, / (100-/) Ofthe wire, S.NO resistance, R S=R (=) (Q) (cm) (cm) Q 1 2 3, 4. 5. Mean, $= Q Procedure: a) Make the connections as shown in figure. Take out suitable resistance It from the resistance box, b) Touch the jockey at point A; see that there is deflection on galvanometer on one side. Touch the jockey now on the point C of the wire. The deflection in galvanometer should be on the other side. If it is so, connections are correct. If the deflection is one-sided, adjust R till the deflection is reversed. ¢) If the deflections are on both sides, start sliding the jockey on the wire from end A towards C. d) Note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is called balance point. e) Note the length AD and call it as balancing length 4 DC will be (100 — 1). From formula, g m knowing R and J, S can be found. Repeat the above procedure for S five different values of R. Result : ‘The resistance of the given wire is Q Precaution: 1) 2) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter Bridge properly. All connections should be neat and tight.3) Balance point should lie between 40 cm and 60 cm. 4) Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact for a long time. 5) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of Meter Bridge. Sources of error: 1. There may be error due to contact resistances, 2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated 3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current flows for some time 4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section. 5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper strips and connecting screws 02.Meter bridge-Combination of resistances( Series) Aim: To verify the law of combination (series) of resistances using a meter bridge. Requirements: Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, a resistance box, Lechlanche cell (or) battery eliminator of 2V, jockey, two unknown resistance wires and connecting wires. Theory: In series arrangement, the resistors are connected end to end. The source of current is connected between the free ends of the first and the last resistor. In this arrangement, the current through each resistor is the same but potential difference across different resistors is different. The potential difference of the source is distributed across different resistors. Let I be the current through each resistor of resistance Rj, Re, Rs and Vi, V2, Vs the potential difference across each, then V = VitV2tVs, where Vi = IR, V2 = IRz and Vs = IRsSo, V = Rs, where Rs is the effective resistance of the combination. IRs = IRitIRo+IRaRs Ri+Rot Re. For Ri and Re resistors, Rs= Ri +Re Ri R RsObservations: (i) resistance for the material of the wire 1, Ry Value of Ralan Resistance known length, | (100-1) Of the wire, S.No __| resistance S cm em | R=S =) Q Q 1, 1 [2 [2 | | Mean (R,) = Q (ii) resistance for the material of the wire 2, Rs Value of Balancing Resistance known length, | (100-1) Of the wire, S.No _ | resistance ,S cm cm | R=S 32>) 2 Q T. I [2 | 2 | Q (iii) resistance in series, Ry: Value of Balancing Resistance known length, 1 (100-1) Of the wire. S.No | resistance S cm em | ReS (223) Q Q 1. 1 L 2 | 2 | Mean(R,, oO Procedure: a) Measure the unknown resistances Ri and Rz using meter bridge experiment. b) Connect two resistances Ri and Rz in series, ©) Check for deflection on both sides by touching the jockey at both ends of meter bridge wire. d) Proceed in the same way as in meter bridge experiment. Take atleast four sets of observations.e)Compare the measured values of effective resistances using meter bridge with iculated values. Verification: By theory, Rs = Ri + Re Q By experiment, Rs a Precautions: 1) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of meter bridge properly. 2) All connections should be neat and tight. 3) Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm. 4) Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact for a long time. 5) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of meter bridge. Sources of error: 1. There may be error due to contact resistances. 2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated. 3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current flows for some time 4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section. 5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper strips and connecting screws. 03. Resistance and Figure of merit of galvanometer Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of merit. Requirements: Galvanometer, battery, two resistance boxes, one way key(two numbers) and connecting wires. ‘Theory: A galvanometer is a device used to detect small current in a circuit. It has a coil pivoted in a radial magnetic field. When electric current is passed through the coil, it getsdeflected. Its deflection is noted by attaching a pointer to the coil. The deflection is proportional to current passed. A galvanometer has a moderate resistance and has a small current carrying capacity. The resistance of a galvanometer can be found by half deflection method. The circuit is shown for this method. Key K is inserted and deflection 0 is determined with a suitable value of R. If E is the emf of cell and I be the current in circuit, the galvanometer resistance, RS G=FkS_ R-S Figure of merit of galvanometer: It is defined as current required for producing deflection of 1 division. It is measured in ampere/div. When a high resistance R is taken out from resistance box, a current I flows in the circuit and it produces a deflection 0 E Therefore , k=———_ (R+G)o By varying R and noting corresponding value of , we can find a set of values of figure of merit. The mean of these values gives the figure of merit.Low resitance Box Observation: Resistance | Deflection in Galvanometer | Figure of RQ) — | Galvanometer| 0/2-—'| Shunt} Resistance | Merit, 0 (divisions) | (divisions)} $ | G(Qy S.No ke (@) Go (Aldivisions) Ge ‘Mean (K) = Aldivision Procedure: a) Make the connections as shown. b) See that the plugs of resistance box are tight. ©) Introduce a resistance of 5000 from the resistance box R and then insert the Ki only d) Adjust the value of R so that the deflection in the galvanometer is maximum (say 30 iv) ¢) Note the deflection. Let it be @ ie., @ = 30 div. f) Now, insert the key Kz. Without changing the value of R, adjust the value of k, suc that deflection in galvanometer reduces exactly to half the value obtained. i.e., 8/2. g) Note the value of R. h) Repeat the above steps for various values of R.Result: 1). The resistance of galvanometer is found to be 2). Figure of merit of galvanometer is A/division. Precautions: SAll the connections should be neat, clean and tight. b)Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are tight. c)Initially a high resistance from the resistance box should be introduced or else a small resistance can damage the galvanometer. Sources of error: 1. The emf of the battery may change during the experiment. 2. Calibration of resistance in resistance boxes may not be correct. 3. Plugs in resistance boxes may not be tight and nay have contact resistance. 04. Focal length of concave mirror Aim: To find the value of “v for different values of “u.' in case of the concave mirror. Requirements: Concave minor, minor holder, metre scale, lamp with object Theory: When a beam of light parallel to the principal axis falls on concave minor, it reflects the beam which passes through the focus. The nature and size of the image depends on where the object is placed in front of the concave minor. The focal length 1 1 : A where f is focal length of mirror in cm, u is object distance in cm vu and v is image distance in cm, el formula is — mirror fe oe OA —> Object 1B —> Imnge Observation: Rough focal length of the given concave mirror = cmS.No Mirror Object Image Focal length.f position distance, u distance, v (cm) (cm) (cm) 1. 2 3. 4. 5. Procedure: mean, f= cm Obtain the rough focal length value by focusing the image of a distant object on the wall. a) Mount the mirror in the mirror holder. b) Ensure that the object and the mirror is on the straight line. c) Keep the mirror from the object at a distance of twice the focal length of the mirror. d) Adjust the position of the white screen till the image is obtained. ¢) Measure the distance between the pole of the mirror and the object. This is the obj distance, u. ) Measure the distance between mirror and screen, This is the image distance, v. h) Repeat the steps with mirror at (2f-2), (2f-4), (2f#2) and (2f+4) positions from object. Result: The focal length of the concave mirror is 1) By calculation, f cm 2) By u-v graph, f= cm Precautions: a) The object and mirror must be in a straight line. Do not keep the object closer to the rough focal length of the minor. This will produce a virtual image. b) Tips of the object and image should be at same height and should be in level with centre of mirror. ©) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from the image to view the image clearly. Sources of error: 1, The uprights may not be vertical. 2. The parallax may not be removed properly.3. Personal error. 4. Sign convention not applied correctly 05, Focal length of convex lens Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v Requirements: Convex lens, lens holder, metre scale, white screen, lamp with object. Theory: When a ray of light, parallel to principal axis is incident on a convex lens, after refraction, it passes through focus. Another ray which passes through optical centre goes straight and these refracted rays meet and produce real inverted images. The nature and size of image depends on position of object, 1 1 -— where u is object distance in cm, v is image distance f vou Focal length formula is + v in cm and focal length of lens in cm (ays AB'—> Image =x + ule) . Observation: Rough focal length of the given convex lens = em Object Image Focal length, F S.No Lens position | distance, u distance, v (em) (em) WRBN= Mean (= cm. Procedure:a) Obtain rough focal length of given convex lens by focusing the image of a distant object on the wall. b) Mount the given lens on the lens holder and place at 2f distance from the object. ©) Place white screen behind the lens. d) Move the screen forward and backward so that the image of the object is obtained. e) Note the position of the object, image and the lens. 1) The distance between the object and the lens is u and the distance between the image and the lens is v. g) Repeat the above steps with lens at (2f-4),(2f-2), (2f2) and (2f4) positions from the object. Result: The focal length (f) of given convex lens is, 1) By calculation, f = 2) By u-v graph, f= Precautions: a) Do not place the object closer than the rough focal length of the lens. This will produce a virtual image. b) Tips of the object and the image should be at same height and should correspond with centre of curvature ©) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from image to view the image clearly. Sources of error: 1. The uprights may not be vertical. 2. The parallax may not be removed properly. 3. Personal error. 4. Sign convention not applied correctly... 6.Concave lens Aim : To determine the focal length of the given concave lens using a convex lens in combination. Apparatus : Concave lens, convex lens, source box, lens stand, screen, meter scale. Formula: From lens formula, uv we have, f= u-v where, f = focal length of concave lens L2u = distance of I from optical centre of lens L2 v = distance of I' from optical centre of lens L2. (Note. According to sign convention, u and u have positive values (being measured in direction of incident light). Since u > u, u - v is negative. Hence f comes negative.) Ray diagram : Procedure : (1) Find the rough focal length of convex lens. (2) Place the convex lens infront of source box and form an image beyond its C on the screen. (3) Introduce the concave lens in between convex lens and the screen. (4) Note the distance between screen and concave lens as u(object distance) when the image is blurred. (5) Now move the screen back word so as to get a clear image. Note the distance between the screen and concave lens as image distance V when the clear image is seen. uw uty (7) Repeat the steps 2 to 6 for different positions of converse lens. (6) Calculate the focal length using the formula f = Observation and Tabular col. S.No.) Object distance | Image distance | Focal length f(em) u(em) Vem) re” Mean f= CalculationResult : The focal length of given concave lens is Precautions : (1) Convex lens must be of small focal length. (2) Intensity of source box must be good. Sources of error : (1) Parallel error possible. (2) Principal axis of lens may not be parallel to table. ‘7.Convex mirror Aim : To find the focal length of convex mirror using convex lens, Apparatus: Convex mirror, convex lens, lens stand, source box, meter scale. Formula: R Focal length of a convex mirror f => where R = radius of curvature of the mirror. Ray diagram 1¢) Procedure : (1) Find the rough focal length of convex lens. Let it be of large focal length. (2) Form the image on the screen using convex lens beyond its C. (3) Introduce the convex mirror between convex lens and screen and move it towards the lens such that the image is formed on the source box itself.(4) When the image is clear on the source box, measure the distance between the convex mirror and the screen. Note it as R and calculate f. (5) Repeat the steps 2 to 4 for different positions of convex Observation and Tabular column No.) Distance between cal Tength mirror and screen Ren) R(em) 20") Mean om Calculation: Result: The focal length of the given convex minor is Precautions : (1) Convex lens may be thin (2) Source may not be bright Sources of error : (1) Parallel error. (2) Principal axis of lens and mirror may not be parallel to the plane of table 8.Ohm's law Aim: To determine the resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph between potential difference and current. Apparatus Required: Resistance wire, battery eliminator, milli- ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires, Rheostat. Formula 1 R=pt PA R— Resistance of the given wire in Q- p - Resistivity of given wire in Qm L— Length of the givrn wire in mA — Area of the given wire in m2 Procedure (1) Make the connections as shown in the diagram. (2) Adjust the rheostat and check whether ammeter and voltmeter is showing reading. (3) Note the voltmeter and ammeter readings by varying the rheostat. Calculate the resistance using the formula (4) Repeat the observation. (5) Plot the graph of V verses I and find the slope. Observation 1: For material 1: Circuit diagram. S.No. | Ammeter reading WA) Voltmeter reading (vy)Ibservation 2: For material 2: 5.No. Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading WA) () Model graph: ee Result : For material 1: The resistance of the given wire V-I graph ‘The resistivity of thr given wire . For material 2: The resistance of the given wire V-I graph ‘The resistivity of thr given wire ........ from V-1 graph Sources of error : (1) Excess current may heat the coil and hence R will vary. (2) Zero error may be their. Precautions : (1) Connection must be tight and correct. (2) Less amount of current may be passed,ACTIVITYACTIVITY 1 ASSEMBLING THE COMPONENTS AIM To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit. APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Battery, plug key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and sand paper PROCEDURE # Connect the components as shown in Figure * After closing the key K, check that the voltmeter and ammeter show deflections on the right hand sid ‘Check the continuity of the assembled circuit using a multimeter RESULT The components of the electrical circuit were assembled. PRECAUTIONS + Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper before making connections. * The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of the voltmeter an positive terminal of the ammeter. * The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the resistor. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 320ACTIVITY 2 CORRECTING THE WRONG CIRCUIT AIM To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor /rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram. APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Battery, plug key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and sand paper THEORY Ammeter: It should be connected in series, with the battery eliminator. Voltmeter: It should be connected in parallel to the resistor. Rheostat: It should be connected in series (in place of resistance coil) with the battery eliminator. Resistance coil: It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostat). One way key: It should be connected in series to the battery eliminator PROCEDURE * Consider one circuit whosevarious components arenot connected in proper order. ‘+ Draw the correct circuit diagram, + Connect the electrical components according to corrected circuit diagram. + Close the key in the circuit to verify ifthe corrected circuit is functional RESULT ‘The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram is functional, PRECAUTIONS ‘+ Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper before making connections. + The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of the voltmeter and positive terminal of the ammeter. 31CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WronG crew OBSERVATION Correct Cirenit Component Correct Connection Incorrect Connection Battery/cell Resistor Rheostat_ Key ‘Ammeter Voltmeter eiecuiT 32ACTIVITY -3 POTENTIAL PER UNIT LENGTH Aim ¢ To assemble components of given electric circuit, Apparatus required :- Voltmeter, ammeter, battery, rheostat and one way key. Material required :- A resistance cell connecting wire, apteces of sand paper. Procedure :- Connect the items as shown in the figure. Utility + It is used for measuring unknown resistance. i nh Cr) (*) . qe id 'INO | AMMETER READING | VOLIMETER READING | LENGTH OF THEWiRE os oss 30 as 036 2 Os 025 70ACTIVITY 4 IDENTIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS. AIM To identify a diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items. APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Multimeter, a collection of diode, LED, transistor, IC, resistor and capacitor. PROCEDURE Check the physical appearance of the component, * Ifit has four or more terminals and has the appearance of a chip (black rectangular block), then it is anc. « Ifithas three terminals, the component may be a transistor. To confirm, set-up the multimeter in resistance mode (highest range). Connect its black or common terminal to one of the extreme legs of the component and the second terminal (red or positive) to the central leg. Check the mul Ifa deflection is observed, interchange the multimeter terminals, If no deflection is observed, the component is a transistor. + Ifthe component has two terminals, it could be a resistor, a capacitor, a diode or a LED. + Look for colour bands, ifit has a typical set of three colour bands followed by a silver or gold band, th] component is a resistor. + Connect the multimeter terminals (in resistance modehighest range) to the component terminals an watch for multimeter deflection. + Ifthe multimeter shows an equal deflection in both the directions, the component is a resistor. * Ifthe deflection is accompanied with emission of light, in one direction and a much less or zero deflection in the other direction the component is a LED. + Ifthe multimeter does not show any deflection in one direction and shows deflection with no light emission in the other direction then, the component is a diode. + Ifthe multimeter does not show any deflection on connecting its terminals either way to the component, itis a capacitor. But if capacitance of capacitor is large, multimeter may show a momentary deflection. eter deflection| RESULT A diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor are identified respectively from a mixed collection. PRECAUTION While obtaining resistance of any component, clean its leads properly.Drove nee come cage cotoe n 16° 35ACTIVITY 5 IMAGE FORMATION-CONVEX LENS AIM To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Source box, a convex lens of small focal length and known thickness, a screen with a stand, metre scale. PROCEDURE * Mount the lens on the stand * Obtain an approximate value of the focal length of the convex lens by focusing the image of a distant object. + From the rough values of F’ calculate ‘2’. + Place the lens beyond 2F distance from the source box. Place the screen behind the lens and move till you obtain the clear image on the screen. Note the nature size, image of image from the lens in the observation table, ‘+ Repeat the experiments by keeping the convex lens at the distance of 2F, between F and 2F, at F, less than F from the source box, Note the nature ,size, image of image from the lens in the observation table. RESULT ‘The change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical predictions. PRECAUTIONS * This experiment should be performed at a shaded place where no direct light reaches (preferably in dark room) otherwise the images may not be distinctly visible + Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image formed on the screen. DIAGRAM Convex Lens i Principal Axis Object oe 36OBSERVATION TABLE S.No. | Position ofthe | Postion ofthe image | Relative size of the image | Nature ofthe image objet I ALF, AUR, Same size Real and inverted 2 Between F, and 2F, Beyond 2F, Enlarged Real and inverted Beyond 2F, Between F, and 2F, Diminished Real and inveried a Atfocus F, Atinfinity Infinitely large or highly enlarged | Real and inverted §, | Between focus F, and | On the same side of the Enlarged ‘Virtual and erect optical cemire O {ens as the object 6 | Atiinty ‘At foeus Highly diminished, poinsized | Real and inverted | |At Infinit Real inverted, diminished at Between F, F, 1 SD herr diminished and 2F| O2F F between F Real, inverted, and 2F F.2F| Real, inverted, aE ee T} equal, at 2F Real, inverted, Between 2F I) enlarged, 2F aud F TI between 2F eae and infinity 1¢ 2K | Real inverted, AtE enlarged F at infinity Sa Virtual, erect, Between enlarged and. FandP | 7F on the side of the object 37ACTIVITY 6 REFRACTION OF GLASS SLAB AIM ‘To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab. APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Drawing board, rectangular glass slab, white sheet of paper, drawing pins, a metre scale, pins, protractor, sharp pencil and eraser. PRINCIPLE When a ray of light is incident on a rectangular glass slab, itis refracted through it. It emerges out of the slab parallel to the direction of the incident ray. The emergent ray suffers only a lateral displacement. For| a given angle of incidence and a pair of media, the lateral deviation is proportional to the thickness of the glass slab. PROCEDURE *Fixa white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board. * Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary ABCD. © Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle i with the normal. PQ will represent an incident ray. ‘+ Fix two pins at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distances 1 cm or more between themselves. ‘+See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 (1 cm or more apart} such that these two pins cover the images of first two pins, all being along a straight line ‘+ Remove the glass slab, Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to represent emergent ray. Join QR to represent refracted ray. ‘+ Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be equal to angle i, Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU perpendicular to RS. TU measures lateral displacement d. ‘+ Now take another set for different angle of incident and measure the lateral displacement. RESULT The ray of light emerging from a glass slab is parallel to the incident ray direction, but is laterally deviate DIAGRAM Refraction through a glass slab, 38OBSERVATION TABLE ‘Angle of ‘Angle of ‘Angle of sno| incidence} —_Refraction| _ emergence i r © i 30 20 31 2 40 25 40 3 50. 31 50 39