1

PHYSICS
PRACTICAL RECORD
GRADE - XII
2

EXPERIMENT – 1

Aim: To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.

Observations
Range of ammeter = ……………………………A, Range of voltmeter = ……………………………V
Least count of ammeter= …………………….…A Least count of voltmeter= …………………….…V
Pitch of screw gauge = …1….mm
Total no. of divisions on circular scale = …100…
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
Least count = = …0.01…mm = 0.001 cm
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

For wire 1
Length of wire, ℓ1 = ……………………cm
Observation table

S. Ammeter reading (in ampere) Voltmeter reading (in volt)

No. 𝑉
No. of divisions No. of divisions =𝑅
𝐼
(m) I = m x L.C (n) V = n x L.C
(ohm)

5
3

EXPERIMENT – 1

Aim: To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference
versus current.

Apparatus:
Given resistance wires, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a cell or battery, one way key, meter
scale, screw gauge, connecting wire and sand paper.
Theory
(i) According to Ohm’s law, the potential difference across the ends of a conductor is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it provided the physical conditions of
the conductor and its temperature remain the same. Let I be the current flowing through
a conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends, then
𝑉
V ∝ I or V = IR or 𝑅 =
𝐼
(ii) A graph between current ‘I’ along x-axis and potential difference ‘V’ along the y-axis
comes out to be a straight line and the slope of this line gives the value of resistance of
the given wire.
𝜋𝑑2
(iii) The specific resistance of the material of a given wire is given by 𝑝 = ( ) 𝑋, Where
4𝐿
‘L’ is the length of the wire and ‘d’ is diameter of the wire having resistance ‘X’.
Result
The resistivity of first wire is …………… Ω cm
The resistivity of second wire is …………… Ω cm
Precautions
1. Thick copper wires should be used for making connections and the insulation of their
ends should be removed using sand paper.
2. The connections should be tight.
3. The voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper ranges.
Source of Errors
1. The resistance wire may have kinks in it.
2. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter may lie in between the marking on the
scales. Therefore, it may difficult to note the accurate values of current and potential
difference.

For wire 2
4

Length of wire, ℓ2 = ……………………cm

Observation table

S. Ammeter reading (in ampere) Voltmeter reading (in volt) 𝑉

=𝑅
𝐼
No.
No. of divisions No. of divisions
I = m x L.C V = n x L.C (ohm)
(m) (n)

Observation table for diameter of wire:

Linear scale Circular scale Observe diameter 𝐷𝑎 +𝐷𝑏

S.No. Davg =
reading division D= N + n x L.C 2
‘N’ (mm) ‘n’ (mm)

1.(a) Da = D1 =
(b) Db =

2.(a) Da = D2 =
(b) Db =

𝐷1 +𝐷2
Davg = = mm
2
5
6

Calculations
Determination the slope (𝜟𝑽/𝜟𝑰) of the graph which gives the value of resistance of the
given wire.

𝜟𝑽 𝑩𝑪
R = Slope of 𝑽 − 𝑰graph = = =. . . . . . . . . . 𝜴 ( do for both graphs)
𝜟𝑰 𝑨𝑪
The specific resistance of the material of the given wire is given by
𝜋𝐷2
𝑝=( ) 𝑋 hence 𝜌1=
4𝐿

and 𝜌2 =

Result
The specific resistance of the material is 𝝆1 = and 𝝆2 =
7
8

EXPERIMENT – 2

Aim : To determine the resistance of a given wire using meter bridge.

Circuit Diagram

Observation table to find (unknown) resistance X of the given wire.

S.No. Resistance from Length Length 100−ℓ

𝑋=( ) 𝑅 (ohm)
ℓ
resistance box R (ohm) 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑙 (cm) 𝐷𝐶 = (100 − ℓ)
1 3 37.5 62.5 (cm) 4.99

2 4 44.4 55.6 5.0

3 5 50 50 5.0

4 6 54.5 45.5 5.0

X = (calculate the average value of last column)

9

EXPERIMENT – 2

Aim : To determine the resistance of a given wire using meter bridge.

Apparatus.

Meter bridge or slide wire bridge, resistance wire (length about 1 m ), resistance box, one -way key, jockey,
galvanometer, Daniell cell battery eliminator, screw gauge, thick connecting wires, sand paper, etc.

Theory:

(i) The unknown resistance . 𝑋, according to theory of meter bridge, is given by

100 − ℓ
𝑋=( )
ℓ
Where R is known resistance (from resistance box) in the left gap and X is unknown resistance in the
right gap; ℓ (in cm) is the length of wire of the meter bridge from the zero end 𝐴 upto the null point 𝐷

Result:

1. The resistance of the given wire, 𝑋 =. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 𝛺

Precautions
1. All the connections should be tight and according to the circuit diagram.
2. All the brass plugs of the resistance box should be made tight by giving them screw motion
3. The key K of the battery circuit should be closed first and then jockey should be touched on the wire to
avoid induction effect in the galvanometer , i.e., to save the galvanometer from momentary kick due to
self inducement produced while making or breaking the circuit.
Sources of Error
1. The wire of the meter bridge may not have uniform area of cross – section throughout its entire length.
2. The wire of meter bridge may get heated up due to passage of electric current, thus changing resistance
of the wire.
3. The end resistances may not be eliminated completely.
4. Backlash error may be present in the screw gauge due to loose fitting of the screw.
10

EXPERIMENT – 3

Aim : To verify the laws of combination (series / parallel) of resistances using a meter bridge.

Observation table:

Resistance
Resistance
Length DC
from Balancing Mean
100 − 𝐼
Resistance coil S.N resistance length AD = I = (100 – I) 𝑟=( )𝑅 resistance
𝐼
box (R) (cm) (ohm)
(cm)
(Ohm)
(ohm)

1. 3 37.5 62.5 4.9

𝑟1
2. 4 44.4 55.6 4.9
𝑟1 =…4.9...
3. 5 50 50 5.0

1. 3 42.9 57.1 3.9

𝑟2 2. 4 50 50 4
𝑟2 =…3.9…..
3. 5 55.6 44.4 3.9

1. 4 30.8 69.2 8.9

𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟2 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 2. 5 35.7 64.3 9.0

𝑟𝑠 =…9…….
3. 6 40 60 9.0

1. 1 31 69 2.2

𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟2 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 2. 2 47.4 52.6 2.2

𝑟𝑝 =…2.2…
3. 3 57.4 42.6 2.2
11

EXPERIMENT – 3

Aim : To verify the laws of combination (series / parallel) of resistances using a meter bridge.

Apparatus

A meter bridge or slide wire bridge, two resistance coils, resistance box, one – way key,

jockey or battery eliminator, connecting wires and sand paper.

Theory:

1. The resistance of a wire (or resistance coil) using meter bridge is given by
100 − ℓ
𝑟=( )𝑅
ℓ

Where ℓ is length of the meter bridge wire from the zero end up to the null point and 𝑅 is
Resistance from the resistance box.
2. When two resistances 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are connected in series, their combined resistance is given by
3. When two resistances 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are connected in parallel, their combined resistance is given by 𝑟𝑝 =
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟1 +𝑟2

Result
(i) Within experimental errors, 𝑟𝑠 ≈ 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 . Therefore, the law of combination of resistances in
series stands verified.
(ii) Within experimental errors, 𝑟𝑝 ≈ 𝑟1 𝑟2 /(𝑟1 . +𝑟2 ) Therefore, the law of combination of resistances
in parallel stands verified.
Precautions
1. All the connections should be tight and according to the circuit diagram.
2. All the brass plugs of the resistance box should be made tight by giving them screw motion
3. The key K of the battery circuit should be closed first and then jockey should be touched on the wire to
avoid induction effect in the galvanometer , i.e., to save the galvanometer from momentary kick due to
self inducement produced while making or breaking the circuit.
Sources of Error
1. The wire of the meter bridge may not have uniform area of cross – section throughout its entire length.
2. The wire of meter bridge may get heated up due to passage of electric current, thus changing resistance
of the wire.
3. The end resistances may not be eliminated completely.
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Calculations and Verification of Laws

(a) Verification of the law of resistance in series:

Mean value of 𝑟1 =……4.9……..ohm

Mean value of 𝑟2 =…3.9……..ohm

Mean value of (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) =…8.8…..ohm

Mean value of 𝑟𝑠 =……9……..ohm

Within experimental errors, 𝑟𝑠 ≈ 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 Therefore, the law of resistance in series is verified.

(b) Verification of the law of resistance in parallel:

Mean value of 𝑟1 =………ohm
Mean value of 𝑟2 =………ohm
𝑟1 𝑟2
Mean value of ( )= …….ohm
𝑟1 +𝑟2

Mean value of 𝑟𝑝 =………ohm

𝑟1 𝑟2
Within experimental errors, 𝑟𝑝 ≈ Therefore, the law of resistance in parallel is verified.
𝑟1 +𝑟2

Result:

(i) Within experimental errors, 𝑟𝑠 ≈ 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 . Therefore, the law of combination of resistances in

series stands verified.

(ii) Within experimental errors, 𝑟𝑝 ≈ 𝑟1 𝑟2 /(𝑟1 . +𝑟2 ) Therefore, the law of combination of resistances
in parallel stands verified.
13
14

EXPERIMENT – 4

Aim : To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half – deflection method and to find its figure of
merit.

Circuit Diagram

Observation table to find resistance of galvanometer (G):

Galvanometer
Deflection in Shunt Half
Resistance R resistance
S.No galvanometer resistance S deflection
(Ω) 𝑅𝑆
(θ) (Ω) θ/2 G= (Ω)
𝑅−𝑆
1 G1 =

2 G2 =

3 G3 =

4 G4 =

5 G5 =

Mean value of the resistance of galvanometer , G = ..............................Ω

15

EXPERIMENT – 6

Aim : To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half – deflection method and to find its figure of
merit.

APPARATUS

A Weston type galvanometer, a cell or battery of 2 V, a resistance box (0 - 10000𝛺), a

resistance box (0 – 500𝛺), two one way keys, connecting wires and sand paper.

Theory:

(i) The resistance G of a galvanometer, by half deflection method, is given by

𝑅𝑆
𝐺=
𝑅−𝑆
Where R is resistance from the resistance box (R.B.) and S is shunt resistance

(ii) The figure of merit (k) of the galvanometer is given by

𝐸 1
𝑘=[ ]
𝑅+𝐺 𝜃
Where E is emf of the cell or battery, R is resistance from the resistance box, G is

The resistance of the galvanometer and 𝜃 is deflection in the galvanometer.

Result

1. The resistance G of galvanometer by half deflection method is ………….. 𝛺

2. The figure of merit (k) of the given galvanometer is …………………………ampere / division.

Precautions
1. All the connections as well as plugs of the resistance box should be tight.
2. To avoid damage to the galvanometer, a high resistance (say 500𝛺) should be first taken out of
the resistance box R and then k1 should be closed.
3. A freshly charged battery / cell should be used so that its emf E may remain constant.
4. The plugs of the resistance box should be clean.
5. The plugs of the resistance box should be tight by giving them a twist.
Sources of Error
1. The plugs of resistance box may not be clean or tight.
2. The emf of the battery may not be constant.
3. The division on the scale of the galvanometer may not be of equal size.
16

Observation for figure of merit:

The emf of the cell/battery, E = ……………….. volt

Resistance of the galvanometer, G = ………………………….. ohm

Observation table for finding the figure of merit (k)

Resistance R Deflection in the galvanometer 𝐸 1

S. No. 𝑘= . (𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1 )
(𝛺) 𝜃 (𝑅 + 𝐺) 𝜃

1.

2.

3.

Mean value of the figure of merit, k = …….….. A div – 1

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18

EXPERIMENT – 5

Aim : To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal
length.

Ray Diagram

Observations

Rough focal length of the concave mirror = ……………cm

Observation table :

Position of upright with Observed distance

−𝑢𝑣
S.No Image 𝑓=
𝑃𝑂 = 𝑢 𝑃𝐼 = 𝑣 (𝑢+𝑣)
Concave mirror Object
needle I (cm)
P (cm) needle 0 (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Calculations

Mean value of the focal lengths = ……………………… cm

19

EXPERIMENT – 5

Aim : To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find its focal
length.

Apparatus

An optical bench, there uprights, a mirror holder, a concave mirror, two needle, a metre scale and

a knitting needle.

Theory:

The focal length 𝑓of a concave mirror is related to the object distance 𝑢and image distance 𝑣by
the formula
1 1 1
= + (Mirror formula)
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

𝑢𝑣
Or 𝑓=
𝑢+𝑣

For a concave mirror, both object 𝑢and (real) image distance 𝑣 are negative. Hence, focal length
𝑓is also negative.

Result:

The focal length of the concave mirror from calculation is …………………. Cm

Precautions

1. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the image needle 𝐼and inverted image of

the object needle O.

2. To locate the position of the image, the eye should be atleast 30 cm from the needle.

3. Index corrections should be calculated separately for object needle and image needle.

4. The object needle and image needle should be distinguished by putting a paper flag on
the object O. They should not be interchanged for different set of observations.

5. The mirror should be handled properly so that it may not break or its polish spoiled.
20

EXPERIMENT – 6

Aim : To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graph between ‘u’ and ‘v’.

Ray Diagram

Observation:

Rough focal length of the lens = ……………….. cm.

Observation table:

Positions of uprights with Observed distance

uv
S.
Image LI  v 1 1 f 
Object needle
Lens L
(u  v)
No LO  u u v
needle I (cm)
(cm)
0 (cm) (cm)
(cm)
(cm) (cm-1) (cm-1)

Calculations:

Mean value of focal lengths = ………………….. cm

21

EXPERIMENT – 6

Aim : To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graph between ‘u’ and ‘v’ or between
1 1
and .
u v

Apparatus required:

An optical bench, three uprights, a convex lens, a lens holder, two needles, a half meter

scale and knitting needle.

Theory:

1 1 1
The object distance u, the image distance v and focal length f are related by the equation  
v u f

(Lens formula)

For a convex lens. The focal length f is positive, object distance u is negative and (real)

image distance is positive.

Result:
1. The focal length of the convex lens using lens formula is ……………cm.
2. The focal length of the convex lens using uv  graph is ……………cm.
Precautions
1. The tips of objects needle O, image needle I and optical centre of the lens all should be at the
same height.
2. The parallax should be removed from tip – to – tip.
3. While removing parallax, the observer’s eye should be at a distance of about 30cm from the
needle.
22

Calculations of Focal Length by Plotting Graph between u and v :

The graph comes out to be a rectangular hyperbola. Draw a line OQ making an angle of 450 with
either axis bisecting X ' OY meeting the graph at Q. The coordinates of Q are (2 f ,2 f ). Draw QA
and QB perpendicular to x' - axis and y 'axis

OA OB
Then f   ...........cm OR f   ...........cm
2 2
Mean focal length of convex lens, f  ...........cm
Result:
1. The focal length of the convex lens using lens formula is ……………cm.
2. The focal length of the convex lens using uv  graph is ……………cm.
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24

EXPERIMENT – 7

Aim: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph

between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Ray Diagram

S.No. Angle of incidence i (in degree) Angle of deviation  (in degree)

1. 350

2. 400

3. 450

4. 500

5. 550

6. 600
25

EXPERIMENT – 7

Aim: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph

between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Apparatus

A drawing board, a sheet of white paper, glass prism, drawing pins, all- pins, protractor, a

ruler and a graph paper.

Theory:

According to prism equation i  e  A

  I e4

Thus, the angle of deviation δ depends upon the angle of incidence. It is observed that the angle of

deviation first decreases, becomes minimum and then increases as the angle of incidence I is

increased.

Result :

1. The angle of deviation of  first decreases with increases in angle of incidence i becomes
minimum and then increases with further increase in angle of incidence.

2. The angle of minimum deviation from the graph is…………..0

Precautions

1. The boundary of the prism, incident ray and refracted ray all should be drawn with a sharply
pointed pencil.

2. The distance between the two pins should be at least 7 to 8 cm.

3. The all – pins should be fixed vertically.

4. The tips of both the pins on the emergent ray RS and images of tips of both the pins on the
incident ray AB should lie in the same straight line.

5. The angle of deviation should be measured accurately with the help of protractor.

6. The graph between angle i and  should be drawn by a smooth curve passing practically
through most of the plotted points.
26

Plotting of Graph: Select suitable scale along X – axis and Y – axis and plot of a graph

between angle of incidence i along X – axis and angle of deviation  along Y – axis.

Result :

1. The angle of deviation of  first decreases with increases in angle of incidence i becomes
minimum and then increases with further increase in angle of incidence.

2. The angle of minimum deviation from the graph is…………..0

27
28

EXPERIMENT – 8

Aim : To draw the I  V characteristic curve of a p – n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.

Circuit Diagram:

Observation:
Least count of voltmeter (having range 0 to 3 V ) = ……..V
Least count of voltmeter (having range 0 to 12 V ) = ……V
Least count of milliammeter =…….mA
Least count of microammeter=…..  A
Observation table:

Forward biased p – n junction diode Reverse biased p – n junction diode

S.NO. Millimeter reading Voltmeter reading Micro ammeter

Voltmeter reading VF (V )
I F (mA) VR (V ) reading IR(μA)

1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
29

EXPERIMENT – 8

Aim : To draw the I  V characteristic curve of a p – n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.

Apparatus :

A p – n junction diode, a power supply (0 to 1.5 V and 0 to 15 V) with potential divider

arrangement ( or a rheostat) , a resistance of 10  , a d.c voltmeter (range 0 to 30 mA ),

a d.c. miroammeter (range 0 to 500  A), a d.c. voltmeter (range 0 to 15 V), one – way key

or switch, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Result

1. The I  V Characteristic of p – n junction in forward and reverse biasing are shown in fig.

2. The knee voltage

Vk  ........V and Zener breakdown voltage  ...............V .

Precautions

1. Voltmeter and milliammeter / microammeter should have appropriate ranges during

forward as well as reverse bias.

2. Battery connections should be checked properly during forward bias.

3. Do not increase the current beyond the limits specified in the manual, otherwise the
junction diode will get damaged.

4. In reverse biasing, the milliammeter should be replaced by microammeter and voltmeter of

range ( 0 – 15) should be used.

5. Once reverse or Zener breakdown is attained, the reverse potential should not be
increased further.
30

Plotting of graph:
By selecting suitable scales, plot a graph between VF along X – axis and I F along Y – axis as
shown in Fig. Determine knee voltage Vk .
By selecting suitable scales, plot a graph between VR along X - axis and I R along Y – axis as shown
in fig. Determine the reverse or zener breakdown voltage from the graph.
I – V Characteristic of p – n Junction