Experiment 1 (Section A)

To determine Resistivity of 2-3 wires by Plottinga graph Of

Potential Difference Versus Current.

Aim
To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.

Apparatus
A resistance wire, a voltmeter ( ) V and an ammeter ( ) A of appropriate
range, abattery (battery eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale, one way key,
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory
According to the Ohm’s law the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical
conditions(temperature, dimensions, pressure) of the conductor remains the same.
If I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential difference
across its ends, then according to, Ohm’s Law,

R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the

conductor. In S.I. units, the potential difference V is measured in volt and the current
I in ampere, the resistance R is measured in ohm.
(1) To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the
ratio V/I remains constant for a given resistance, therefore a graph between
thepotential difference (V) and the current (I) must be a straight line.
(2) The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance, (𝑉𝐼 = 𝑅)
(3) Specific resistance of the material of the wire is given by 𝜌 = 𝑅𝜋𝐷2 /4𝐿, where L is length of the wire.
Circuit diagram
Observations

1. Length
Length of the resistance wire l = ……….
2. Range
Range of the given ammeter = ……….
Range of the given voltmeter = ……….
3. Least count
Least count of ammeter = ……….
Least count of voltmeter = ……….
4. Zero error
Zero error in ammeter, e1 = ……….
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 = ……….
5. Zero correction
Zero correction for ammeter, c1 = -e1 = ……….
Zero correction for voltmeter, c2 = -e2 = ……….
5. Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter

6. Table For Diameter of the wire

Calculations
1. Find ratio of V and I for each set of observations.
2. Plot a graph between potential difference V and current I,taking V along X-axis
and I along Y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line.
𝑅 +𝑅 +⋯….
3. Calculate R= 1 𝑛2 =
4. Use the formula 𝜌 = 𝑅𝜋𝐷2 /4𝐿
Result

1. Resistivity of the wire is ...........................Ω -m.

2. The graph between V and I is a straight line.
Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing
theinsulations near their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
Sources of error
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance.
Experiment 2 (Section A)

To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using

metre bridge.
Aim
To find resistance of a given wire using Metre Bridge and hence determine the
resistivity (specific resistance) of its material.

Apparatus
A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator), a galvanometer,
a resistance box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, a metre
scale, a set square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory

(i) The unknown resistance X is given by

where, R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in theright
gap of metre bridge. I cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance
point.
Circuit diagram
Observations
1. Length of given wire L = cm.
2. Table for unknown resistance (X)

Calculations

Result

1. The value of unknown resistance X =………

2. Percentage error =……….

Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
Experiment 3 (Section A)
To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of
resistances using a metre bridge.

Aim
To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge.

Apparatus
A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box,
a jockey, two resistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances, a set square,
sand paper and connecting wires.

Theory

where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and l is the length of
the metre bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.

Circuit diagram
Observations

Table for length (l) and Unknown resistance (x)

Calculations

Result
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of R p are same.
Hence, law of resistances in parallel is verified.
Precautions
Same as in Experiment 2
OR
Experiment 3 (Section A)
To Verify the Laws of Combination (Series) ofResistances
Using a Metre Bridge.

Aim
To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.

Apparatus
A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a
jockey, two resistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances, a set square,
sand paper and connecting wires.

Theory

where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and l is the length ofthe
metre
bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.

Circuit diagram
Observations
Table for length (1) and unknown resistance (X)

Calculations
1. Calculation for r1 only, r2 r2only, r1 and r2 in series.
Same as in Experiment 1.
2. Calculation for verification of laws Experimental value of Rs = ……
Theoretical value of Rs = r1 + r2 = ……
Difference (if any) = ……

Result
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rs are same.
Hence, law of resistances in series is verified.

Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the
insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
Experiment 4 (Section A)
To Determine Resistance Of a Galvanometer By Half-
Deflection Method & to Find Its Figure Of Merit

Aim
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.

Apparatus
A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω
and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre
scale, an ammeter of given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory

Circuit diagram
Observations and Calculations

1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method

2. Table for figure of merit

Calculation

Result

1. Resistance of given galvanometer = ............ Ω

2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer = ………….A/dn.
Precautions

1.All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2.All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3.The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4.Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in
thecircuit (otherwise for small resistance an excessive current will flow
through the galvanometer or ammeter can be damaged).
Sources of error

1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.
Experiment 5 (Section B)
To Find the Value Of V For Different Values Of U In Case Of
a Concave Mirror & to Find the Focal Length

Aim

To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the
focal length.

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights (zero end upright fixed, two outer uprights with
lateral movement), concave mirror, a mirror holder, two optical needles (one thin, one
thick), a knitting needle and a half metre scale.

Theory

Ray Diagram
Observations

Table for u and v

Calculations

Precautions

1. Principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the central line of
the optical bench.
2. The uprights should be vertical.
3. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of the
needle O.
4. To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from
the needle.
Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
Experiment 6 (Section B)

To Find the Focal Length Of a Convex Lens By Plotting

Graphs Between U & V Or Between 1/u & 1/v

Aim
To find, the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between
1/u and 1/v.

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral
movement), a convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a
knitting needle and a half metre scale.

Theory
The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is

where,
f = focal length of convex lens
u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lensv
= distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.
Note. According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive value.
Hence, f comes positive.

Ray diagram
Observations

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = …….cmActual

length of the knitting needle x=…….cm
Table for u and V & 1/u and 1/v

Calculations

Calculations of focal length by graphical methods:

(i) u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along X’-axis and v
along Y-axis. According to sign conventions, in this case, u is negative and v is
positive.Plot the various points for different sets of values of u and v from observation
table second quadrant. The graph comes out to be a rectangular hyperbola as shown
in graph between u and v.
Draw a line OA making an angle of 45° with either axis (i.e., bisecting ∠YOX’)
andmeeting the curve at point A. Draw AB and AC perpendicular on X’- and Y-
axes, respectively.
The values of u and v will be same for point A. So the coordinates of point A must

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from

Precautions

1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the
centreof the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least
30cm away from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real,
invertedimage of it is formed.
4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
Experiment 7 (Section B)
To determine angle Of minimum Deviation For a Given Prism
By Plotting a Graph Between Angle Of Incidence & the
Angle Of Deviation

Aim
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.

Apparatus
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale,
office pins, graph paper and a protractor.

Theory
The refractive index in) of the material of the prism is given by

where, Dm angle of minimum deviation and A angle of the prism.

Diagram

Observations
Angle of prism ‘A’ =……
Calculations

Plot a graph between angle of incidence ∠i and angle of deviation ∠D by taking ∠i

alongX-axis and ∠D along Y-axis. From this graph, find the value of single of
minimum deviation Dm corresponding to the lowest point of the graph.

Result

1. i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of
deviation (D)first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm ) and then starts
increasing for further increase in angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = ……..

Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = ……….

Precautions

1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.

2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

Sources of error

1. Pin pricks may be thick.

2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
Experiment 8 (Section B)

To Draw the I-V Characteristic Curve Of a p-n Junction In

Forward Bias & Reverse Bias

Aim
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse
bias.
Apparatus
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high
resistance rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA
ammeter, one 0-100 μA ammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand
paper.

Theory
Forward bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to positive
terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to negative terminal of the battery then
junction is said to be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the forward current
increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for
Ge), the current increases suddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the
forward current increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.
Reverse bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to negative
terminal of high voltage battery and n-section of the diode is connected to positive
terminal of the same battery, then junction is said to be reverse biased.
When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse current flow,
which remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to
sufficiently high value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This
voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs (suddenly large current flow) is
called zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The breakdown voltage may^tarts
from one volt to several hundred volts, depending upon dopant density and the
depletion layer.

Diagram
Observations

For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter = …..V
Least count of voltmeter = …..V
Zero error of voltmeter = …..V
Range of milli-ammeter = …..mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = …..mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter = …..mA

Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current

Note. The readings are as a sample.

For reverse-bias
Range of voltmeter = …..V
Least count of voltmeter = …..V
Zero error of voltmeter = …..V
Range of micro-ammeter = …..μA
Least count of micro-ammeter = …..μAZero
Explanation
error of micro-ammeter = …..

Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse current

Note. The readings are given as a sample.

Calculations

For forward-bias
Plot a graph between forward-bias voltage VF and forward current IF taking VF along X-axis and
IF along Y-axis. This graph is called forward-bias characteristic curve a junction diode.

For reverse-bias
Plot a graph between reverse-bias voltage VR and reverse current IR taking VR along X-axis and
IR along Y-axis.
This graph is called reverse-bias characteristic curve of a junction diode.

Result
Junction resistance for forward-bias = …………… ohms
Junction resistance for reverse-bias = ………….ohms.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of error
The junction diode supplied may be faulty.