1

Section A Experiments

1. To determine the resistivity of two/ three wires by plotting a graph for

potential difference versus currents.

Aim
To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.

Apparatus/Material Required
 A wire of unknown resistance
 Battery
 Voltmeter
 Millimeter
 Rheostat
 Plug key
 Connecting wires
 Piece of sandpaper

Circuit Diagram

Theory
According to Ohm’s law, the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across its ends, provided the physical state (pressure, temperature, and dimensions) of the conductor
remains unchanged.
If I is the current flowing through the conductor and V is the potential difference across its end, then
V∝I
and hence
V = RI
2

Where R is the constant of proportionality and is termed as the electrical resistance of the conductor.
Resistance R depends on the dimensions and material of the conductor. The relationship between the resistance of
a material and its length and area of the cross-section is given by the formula
R=ρlA
’
Where
ρ
is the specific resistance or resistivity and is a characteristic of the material of the wire.

Procedure
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wire with the help of sandpaper to remove any insulating coating on them.
2. Connect the resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter, and ammeter as shown in the figure.
3. Make sure that the pointers in the voltmeter and milliammeter coincide with the zero mark on the measuring
scale. If not, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the screw provided at the base
using a screwdriver.
4. Note the range and the least count of the given voltmeter and milliammeter.
5. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat to the end where the current flow is minimum.
6. Note the voltmeter and the milliammeter reading.
7. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool. Again insert the key and slightly increase the voltage by
moving the rheostat. Note down the milliammeter and voltmeter reading.
8. Repeat step 7 for four different adjustments of the rheostat. Document the readings in a tabular column.

Observations
Range of ammeters = _____ mA to _____ mA
The Least count of ammeter = _____ mA
Range of voltmeter = _____ V to ____ V
The Least count of voltmeter = _____ V
The Least count of meter-scale = _____ m
Length of the given wire, l = _____ m

Calculations
1.
1. Plot a graph between the potential difference across the wire V and the current I flowing through the wire as
shown below.
3

2. Determine the slope of the graph. The resistance of the given wire is then equal to the
Reciprocal of the slope.
From the graph, R = BC/AB = _____ Ω
3. Resistance per unit length of the wire = R/t = _____ Ωm – 1
Error
ΔRR=ΔVV+ΔII=….
Here, R is the resistance per unit length and ΔR is the estimated error. ΔV
and ΔI are the least count of voltmeter and ammeter respectively.

Result
The potential difference across the wire varies linearly with the current.
The resistance per unit length of the wire is ( R ± ΔR) = _____ ± _____ Ωm– 1 ).

2. To find the resistance of a given wire/ standard resistor using a meter

bridge.

Aim
To find resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the resistivity (specific resistance) of its
material.

Materials Required
1. A metre bridge
2. A Leclanche cell (battery eliminator)
3. A galvanometer
4. A resistance box
5. A jockey
6. A one-way key
7. A resistance wire
8. A screw gauge
9. A metre scale
10. A set square
11. Connecting wires
12. A piece of sandpaper

Theory
Metre bridge apparatus is also known as a slide wire bridge. It is fixed on the wooden block and consists of a long
wire with a uniform cross-sectional area. It has two gaps formed using thick metal strips to make the Wheatstone’s
bridge.
Then according to Wheatstone’s principle, we have:
XR=l(100−l)
The unknown resistance can be calculated as:
X=Rl(100−l)
Then the specific resistance of the material of the is calculated as:
4

ρ=πr2XL
Where,

 L is the length of the wire

 r is the radius of the wire

Circuit Diagram

Procedure
1. The arrangement of the apparatus should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The wire whose resistance is to be determined should be connected in the right gap between C and B
without any formation of loops.
3. The resistance box should be connected in the left gap between A and B.
4. All the other connections should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Plug the key K in place of 2-ohm resistance in the resistance box.
6. The jockey should be first touched gently to the left end and then to the right end of the bridge.
7. The deflections in the galvanometer should be in opposite directions and if it is in one direction then the
circuit connections are not correct. Note the galvanometer deflection.
8. Let D be the null point where the jockey is touching the wire. The movement of the jokey should be gentle
from left to the right of the galvanometer.
9. Take a 12 value from the resistance box should be taken such that when the jockey is nearly in the middle of
the wire, there shouldn’t be any deflection.
10. Note the position of D to know the length of AD = l.
11. Four sets of observations should be taken by changing the value of 12.
12. Record the observations in a tabular form.
13. Stretch the resistance wire to find its length using a metre scale.
14. Using screw gauge measure the diameter of the wire at four different places keeping it in a mutually
perpendicular direction.
15. Record the observations in the table.
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Observations
Length of given wire L =…….cm
Table for unknown resistance (X)

Resistance from Length AB Length BC = Unknown Resistance X

box, R (Ohm) = l (cm) (100-l) (cm) = [R(100-l)]/L (Ohm)

0.5 58.3 41.7 0.35

0.7 60.7 39.3 0.45

1 61.9 38.1 0.61

1.5 61.1 38.9 0.95

Least count of the screw gauge
Pitch of screw gauge = …….mm
Total no.of divisions on the circular scale = ………..
∴ L.C of the given screw gauge =
pitchno.ofdivisionsonthecircularscale
= ……mm
Zero error e = ……mm
Zero correction c = -e = ……mm
Radius of the resistance wire

Main scale Circular Total reading Mean D Mean

reading scale (diameter) (mm) (mm) radius (D/2)
6

(mm) reading (mm)

0 43 0.43 0.42 0.21

Calculations
Calculation for X
The value of l is determined from the position of D and recorded in column 3 of Table 1.
Find length (100 – l) cm and write in column 4.
Calculate X and write in column 5,
MeanX=X1+X2+X3+X44=……ohm
Calculation for D
Mean corrected diameter =
D1(a)+D1(b)+…..+D4(a)+D4(b)8=……mm=….cm
Calculation for specific resistance
Specific resistance of the material of the given wire,
ρ=X.πD24L=…..ohmcm=……ohmm
Standard value of the specific resistance of the material of the given wire,
ρ0 = …..ohm.m
Percentage error =
ρ−ρ0ρ0×100
= ………%

Result
1. The value of unknown resistance X = …….
2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire = ………
3. Percentage error = …….

Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.
2. Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.
3. The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn’t be rubbed.
4. The key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. The null point should be between 45cm and 55cm.
6. To avoid the error of parallax, the set square should be used to note the null point.
7. There shouldn’t be any loops in the wire.
8. The diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions that are mutual.
7

3. To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a meter

bridge.

Aim
To verify the laws of the combination of resistances using a meter bridge.

Apparatus/Materials Required
 Meter Bridge
 Leclanche cell
 Resistance Box
 Galvanometer
 Jockey
 Sand Paper
 Connecting wire
 Two resistance wires
 A set square

Circuit Diagram

Theory
(i) The resistance of a resistance wire or a coil is given by
r=(100−l)l⋅R
where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap, and l is the length of the meter bridge wire from
zero ends up to the balance point.
(ii) When two resistors r1 and r2 are connected in series, their combined resistance is given as follows:
Rs = r 1 + r 2
8

Procedure
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2 .
2. To find the value of r 1 and r 2 , follow the same steps as Experiment 1.
3. Connect two coils r1 and r2 in series as shown in the figure.
4. Record the observations as given in the table below

Result
Within limits of experimental error, theoretical and experimental values of Rs are the same. Hence, the law of
resistance in series is verified.

OR
To verify the Laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using a metre
bridge.

Aim:
To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge

Materials Required:
1. 2 different resistances (carbon or wire-wound resistors),
2. metre bridge,
3. galvanometer,
4. a cell or battery eliminator,
5. a jockey,
6. a rheostat,
7. a resistance box,
8. a plug key,
9. sandpaper and
10. thick connecting wires.

Theory:
Consider two resistances, r1 and r2, are connected in series.
The series combination resistance RS is given by RS = r1 + r2
When connected in parallel, the resistance of the combination is given by Rp

Diagram
Resistance connected in Parallel
9

Resistances r1 and r2 connected in parallel to one arm of a metre bridge

Procedure
1. Set up the circuit as shown in the figure above.
2. Connect R1 and R2 as shown in the figure.
3. Tighten all plugs in the resistance box by pressing and rotating each plug to assure that all plugs make good
electrical connections. Using sandpaper, clean the ends of connecting wires before making the connections.
4. Remove some plug(s) from the resistance box to get the suitable value of resistance R
5. Get a null point D on the metre bridge wire by sliding the jockey between ends A and C.
6. Note the value of the resistance R and lengths AD and DC.
7. Calculate the experimental value of the equivalent parallel resistance
8. Repeat the experiment for four more values of resistance R. Obtain the mean value of unknown resistance.

Precautions
 Ensure the connection is neat, clean and tight
 Insert key only while taking an observation
 Move jockey gently over the metre bridge wire.

Sources Of Error
 The instrument screw may be loose
 Unavailability of thick connecting wires

Result
 The experimental value of Xp = ohm
10

 The theoretical value of Xp = ohm

 The experimental and theoretical value of Xp is found to be the same. Hence, the law of resistance in
parallel is verified.
4. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method
and to find its figure of merit .

Aim
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by a half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.

Apparatus/Materials Required
 A battery
 A Weston type galvanometer
 Two one-way keys
 Rheostat
 Screw gauge
 Metre-scale
 Ammeter
 Connecting wires
 A piece of sandpaper
 Two resistance boxes

Circuit Diagram

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Make sure that all the plugs in the resistance boxes are tight
3. Eliminate the high resistance from the resistance box and insert plug key K1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R to make the deflection maximum both in number and within the scale.
5. Note the deflection θ.
6. Now insert the key K2 without changing the value of R. Adjust the value of S such that the value of the
deflection reduces to half of θ, i.e. θ/2
7. Note down the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times and obtains different values of R for different values of S.
11

9. Find the value of the E.M.F of one of the cells with the help of a voltmeter.

1. Calculation for G
 Using the formula

G=RSR−S

, calculate G and note it down in column 6 of Table 1.

 Take the mean of the value of G from column 6 of Table 1.

2. The calculation for k
 Using the formula

k=E(R+G)Θ

, calculate the value of k and write it in column 6 of Table 2.

 Take the mean value of k and record it in column 2 of Table 2.

Result
1. The resistance of the given galvanometer = _____ Ω.
2. The figure of merit of a given galvanometer = _____ A/dn.

Precautions
1. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
2. The e.m.f of the cell or battery should be constant.
3. High resistance from the resistance box should be introduced in the circuit otherwise excessive current will
flow through the ammeter and it can be damaged.

5. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of

merit) into a voltmeter of desired ranfe to verify the same.

Aim:
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of mer it) into a voltmeter of desired range and to
verify the same.

Apparatus Required:
A galvanometer, a voltmeter 0-3V, battery, 2 resistance box (10,000 ohms and 200 ohms), 2 one way keys, a
rheostat, connecting wires and sandpaper.

Theory:
A galvanometer is an ideal device that is capable of detecting even the weakest electric currents in an electric
circuit. It features a coil suspended or pivoted between concave pole faces of a strong laminated horseshoe magnet.
The galvanometer shows the deflection when an electric current is passed through the coil. The deflection is directly
proportional to the current passed. A voltmeter is an instrument used for estimating the electrical potential difference
between 2 points in an electric circuit.
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Series resistance required for conversion

V-range of conversion

Diagram

Procedure
1. Connect the resistance box in series combination with the galvanometer and take the plugs of resistance R.
2. A and B are the fixed terminals and C is the variable terminal of the rheostat.
3. Now the galvanometer functions as a voltmeter of range V Volts.
4. Take out the plugs of calculated resistance R from the resistance box.
5. By using a key, adjust the movable contact of the rheostat such that the deflection of the galvanometer
becomes maximum.
6. Note both the readings of the galvanometer and voltmeter.
7. Convert the readings of the galvanometer into volts.
8. Find the difference in the reading. This difference between voltmeter reading and galvanometer reading
gives the error.
9. By moving the variable contact of rheostat, take 5 readings covering the range of voltmeters from 0 -3 Volts.

Calculation
The resistance of the given galvanometer G =
The figure of merit k =
Number of divisions in galvanometer scale n =
Current for full scale deflection = Ig = nk =
Range of conversion =
Resistance to be placed in series with galvanometer R=V/Ig -G =

Precautions
 Calculate the resistance accurately
 Use the same range conversion voltmeter should be used for verification
 Use correct length shunt wire.
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Result
The value of the actual and measured value of the potential difference is very small and conversion is perfect.

OR
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit)
into an ammeter of desired range and to verify the same .

Aim
To convert the given galvanometer of known resistance and of the known figure of merit into an ammeter of the
desired range and to verify the same.

Materials Required
Following are the materials required:

 A galvanometer of type Weston type

 Ammeter of the range 0-3 A
 Battery with two cells
 Two resistance boxes of 10,000Ω and 200Ω respectively
 Two one way keys
 A rheostat
 Connecting wires
 Piece of sandpaper

Theory
For the conversion of the galvanometer into the ammeter, shunt resistance is required. Following is the formula:
S=Ig.GI−Ig
Where I is the range of conversion

Circuit Diagram
14

Procedure
 The total number of divisions on either side of the galvanometer scale should be equal and denoted by n.
 Current Ig must be calculated for the full-scale deflection using Ig = nk.
 The shunt resistance value is calculated using the formula

S=Ig.GI−Ig

.
The shunt resistance S has a small value such that the range is not available in the resistance box. To obtain the
value of this small resistance, wires of copper, manganin, etc are used with suitable diameter and length.

 Let the length of the wire be 2 cm more than the calculated value of I such that there is 1 cm extra available
at each end. Mark points on each end of the wire and connects it to the two terminals of the galvanometer.
The wire should be such that the points are on the outside of the termin al screws. A galvanometer with the
shunt wire will now work as an ammeter with the range I.
 The electrical connections must be the same as in the circuit diagram.
 To observe maximum and minimum deflection in the galvanometer, insert the key and adjust the rheostat.
 Note the readings from the galvanometer scale and the corresponding ammeter reading.
 Record the observations.

Calculations
The resistance of the galvanometer, G =
The figure of merit, k =
Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n =
Current for full-scale deflection, Ig = nk
Range of conversion, I =
∴ Shunt resistance,
S=Ig.GI−Ig
=

Result
15

The conversion is perfect as the difference between the actual and measured value of currents is very small.

Precautions
 Calculate the resistance accurately
 Same range conversion ammeter should be used for the verification
 The length of the shunt wire must be correct

6. To find the frequency of AC mains with a sonometer.

Aim
To determine the frequency of AC mains using a sonometer.

Apparatus
 A sonometer with soft wires
 A set of eight tuning forks
 Seven ½ kg slotted weights
 A set of eight tuning forks
 Clamp
 Rubber Pad
 Paper rider
 Metre Scale

Diagram

Theory
Let us consider the alternating current to have a frequency v so that the frequency of magnetisation of the
electromagnet VE becomes 2v.
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Let a loaded stretched soft iron wire have a resonant length l1 with the electromagnet. Let a tuning fork of
frequency VT have resonant length l2 .
According to the law of length,
vEl1=Vrl2
vE=Vrl2l1
Hence, the frequency of the alternating current is calculated using the formula
v=12vE=12vTl2l1
The natural frequency of oscillation for a stretched wire of length L, mass M an d tension T is given by
n=12LTμ
μ=masslength=ml

Procedure
1. Place the sonometer on the table as shown in the figure.
2. Test the pulley and make it frictionless by oiling.
3. Put suitable weights in the hanger.
4. Move the wooden bridge P outward to include the maximum length of wire AB.
5. Decrease the length of the wire by moving the wooden bridges equally inwardly.
6. Go on decreasing the length till the sonometer wire starts vibrating.
7. The length of the wire can be adjusted for the maximum amplitude of vibration.
8. Measure the length of the wire AB between the edges of the two bridges and record it in length decreasing
columns.
9. Bring the bridges closer and adjust the length for the maximum amplitude by increasing it.
10. Measure the length and record it in length increasing column.
11. Now take a tuning fork of minimum known frequency and adjust the wire length with the vibrating tuning fork.
12. Repeat step 11 above with tuning forks of other known frequencies.
13. Record your observations.

Observation
The weight suspended on the wire, T = _____ kg.
The length of the sonometer wire, L = _____ m.
Mass of wire, m = _____ kg.
Linear density,
μ=mLkgm−1

S. Frequency of Resonant length of wire Frequency of n=12LTμ

No electromagnet and electromagnet
tuning fork used Length Length Mean=l′+l”2 vE(Hz)
v(Hz) decreasing increasing
l’ (cm) l”(cm)

1. vE l1 = 256l2 /l1 =
2. 256 l2 = 288l3 /l =
3. 288 l3 = 320l4 /l =
4. 320 l4 = 384l5 /l =
17

5. 384 l5 = 480l6 /l =
6. 480 l6 = 512 l7 /l =
7. 512 l7 =
Table for frequency and length

Calculations
Using the formula, vE = v2 l2 /l1 , calculate vE with observations 2 to 7.
Record these values in column 4 of the table.
Find the mean of the above six values of vE .
Then the frequency of the alternating current can be determined by the formula,
v = vE /2
Use
n=12LTμ
for each observation and take the mean. Lastly, compare it with the standard frequency (50 Hz).

Result
The frequency of the alternating current is _____ Hz.
Percentage Error
The actual frequency = 50 Hz
Difference = _____ Hz
PercentageError=DifferenceActualValue×100%
The error is within limits of experimental limits.

Precaution
1. The wire should be soft iron or any other magnetic material.
2. Length should be noted when the amplitude of vibration is maximum.
3. Tip of the electromagnet should be very close to the wire in its middle

Activities
1. To Measure the Resistance and Impedance of an Inductor With or
Without Iron Core
Aim
To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or without iron core.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus. A battery, a high resistance rheostat, D.C. ammeter, D.C. voltmeter, one way key,
variable A.C. source (variac), A.C. ammeter, A.C. voltmeter, connecting wires.
18

Material. A high resistance and large number of turns coil wrapped on a hollow cylindrical asbestos
core, a soft iron rod fitting into the asbestos core.

Procedure
Measurement of resistance:
Make circuit as shown in circuit diagram (figure (a) and figure (6)) and determine resistance applying
Ohm’s law.
Measurement of impedance without iron core:
Make circuit as shown in circuit diagram (figure (c) and figure (d)). The variac (variable output A.C.
source) is connected to A.C. Mains, A.C. ammeter and A.C. voltmeter are used for measuring A.C.
current and voltage.
The circuit will obey Ohm’s law. The ratio of the voltmeter reading to the corresponding ammeter
reading will give the impedance of the inductor (without iron core).
Measurement of impedance with iron core:
Now insert the iron core inside the hollow cylindrical asbestos core of the inductor. Repeat the above
steps to find the impedance of the inductor with iron core.

Circuit diagram

Observations
Least count of D.C. ammeter = ……..
Least count of A.C. ammeter = ……..
Least count of D.C. voltmeter = ……..
Least count of A.C. voltmeter = ……..
Zero correction for D.C. ammeter = ……..
Zero correction for A.C. ammeter = ……..
Zero correction for D.C. voltmeter = ……..
Zero correction for A.C. voltmeter = ……..

1. Measurement of Resistance
2. Measurement of Impedance (without iron core)
Table for A.C. Ammeter and A.C. Voltmeter Readings (Similar to above table—write Z for R).
3. Measurement of Impedance (with iron core)
Table for A.C. Ammeter and A.C. Voltmeter Readings (Similar to above table)

Conclusion

1. The resistance of inductor coil is about same with and without soft iron core in flow of
D.C. and is…….. ohm.
2. Impedance of inductor with iron core is much more higher than without it for the flow
of A.C. and are : ……… Ω and………. Ω.
19

Explanation
The inductor having inductance L without iron core has inductance μL with iron core, (μ being
magnetic (reactive permeability of iron which is about 1700).

To Measure Resistance, Voltage (AC/DC), Current (AC) and Check

Continuity of a Given Circuit Using Multimeter
Aim
To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current (AC) and check continuity of a given circuit using
multimeter.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus. Three carbon resistors, one standard resistance coil, a battery eliminator with tapping (2
V, 4 V and 6 V), a step down transformer (6-0-6 V) with two tapping (2 V and 4 V), a resistor of 100
ohm, a plug key and multimeter.

Theory
Multimeter. It is a single measuring device acting as an Ammeter, a Voltmeter and an Ohmmeter. For
this reason, it is also called AVO meter.
It can measure alternating as well as direct current and alternating as well as direct voltage in addition
to resistance. For this purpose its panel is divided into five different sections. There are many ranges
in each section so that it can measure from micro (10-6) to mega (106) units. Rotation of a knob
changes the section and the range in one section.
— Rotation of knob for change in ammeter range, brings shunt resistances of different values in
circuit in parallel with the coil.
— Rotation of knob for change in voltmeter range, brings series resistances of different values in
circuit in series with the coil.
— Rotation of knob for change in ohmmeter range, brings different resistances in circuit in series with
the multimeter cell.

1. Carbon resistors are frequently used in electrical and electronic circuits and their values vary
over a very wide range. A colour code is used to indicate the value of the resistance.

2. A carbon resistance has four different concentric coloured ringe or bands on its surface. The
first three bands a, b and c determine the value of the resistance and the fourth band d gives
the percentage of accuracy called tolerance. The resistance of carbon resistor R = (ab x 10 c ± T
%) Ω.
20

3. To read the value of carbon resistance, the following sentence is found to be of much more
helpful.

4. The following table provides the colour code for the carbon resistors :

Procedure

1. Mark the given carbon resistors as R1,R2, R3.

2. Note the colour of first, second, third and fourth ring for each resistor.
3. Plug in the probes of the multimeter in appropriate terminals. Select the appropriate range, short
the other ends of probes and adjust zero. Turn the terminal marked ‘Adjust’ such that the needle
of the meter shows full scale deflection and reads zero ohm.
4. Separate the metallic ends of the probes. Insert the resistor R1 to be measured in between the
metallic ends of the two probes and read the deflection of the pointer on the range selected.
5. Repeat the step 4 for other resistors R2and R3 each time selecting the appropriate range and
testing the zero.
21

6. Now convert using the colour code table, the values of resistors in ohms and write their values
with tolerance.

(b) D.C. Voltage

1. Select a D.C. source of potential difference, 6 V battery eliminator or a battery.

2. Plug the probes black in com and red in +.
3. Select D.C. volt, by turning the selector switch to range 10 V D.C. volts,
4. Touch and press other ends of probes such that red is on battery terminal marked + and black
on and not the reading.
5. Insert red probe in terminals marked 4 V, 2 V in succession and note readings.

(c) A.C. Volts

1. Turn the selector A.C. (200 Volt).

2. Touch and press the probes other ends to two terminals of A.C. source of potential
drop and note the reading.
3. Use red probe in terminals 4 V and 2 V in succession and record the reading.

(d) Continuity of given circuit

1. Set the selector switch to ohm, range MΩ.

2. Touch and press the ends of probes at A and B, full scale deflection indicates continuity.
3. Similarly check in succession the continuity between terminals B and C and terminals C and D.
Never place the probes ends between terminals connected with the terminals of the battery.
In digital electronic multimeter for continuity test rotor is set to mark 0 and a buzzer , sounds
when probes are connected to ends of components tested.

Observations
(a) For Measurement of Resistance :
22

(b) Measurement of Voltage:

Inference

1. The measured values by multimeter match with decoded values of resistors.

2. A.C. and D.C. voltages marked on voltage sources match with voltage measured by multimeter.

Precautions

1. Instructions for handling the multimeter should be gone through thoroughly as it is a very handy
instrument and is likely to get damaged if carelessly or ignorantly used.
2. Select the appropriate parameter current, voltage or resistance to the measured and set it on
appropriate range.
3. If range of the parameter measured is not known, start with maximum. For measuring V, never
connect more than maximum 600 V.

To Assemble a Household Circuit Comprising Three Bulbs, Three

(on/off) Switches, a Fuse and a Power Source
Aim
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches,a fuse and a power
source.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: No apparatus required in assembling a circuit.
Material: Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply (battery .
23

eliminator), three (on/off) switches flexible connecting wire with red and black plastic covering,a fuse
wire.
Supplementary: Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory
Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The household circuit, all
appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The switches are connected in series with each
appliances in live wire. 5 A switches are required for normal appliances like, bulbs, fluorescent tubes
fans etc. 15 A sockets and switches are required for heavy load appliances ‘ like, refrigerator, air
conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances must have three wires called live, neutral and the
earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..
where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.
To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of little higher
rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by all appliances. For further safety, a
suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is connected in series with supply source.

Diagram

Procedure

1. Connect the bulbs B 1, B2 and B3 in series with switches S 1, S2 and S3 respectively and connect
each set of B-S in parallel with each other.
2. Connect main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get required voltage
from 0 to 10 V (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 V).
3. Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the power supply (battery eliminator).
4. Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the B-S set.
5. Connect one end of power supply to one end of B-S set.
6. Check the circuit one again to ensure that household circuit is complete.
7. Gradually increase the current to 0.75 A, the fuse must bum off at about 0.6 A.
24

To Assemble The Components of a Given

Electrical Circuit
Aim
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one way key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

Procedure

1. Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as shown in
diagram and then in series with the battery.
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit, to measure the current.
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential difference.
4. Connect the switch in series with the battery.
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete.

To Study The Variation in Potential Drop With

Length of a Wire For a Steady Current
Aim
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus. Potentiometer:
Material: A fully charged 4.5 V battery or battery eliminator, a low resistance rheostat, a voltmeter of
range (0-3.0 V), an ammeter (0-3) A, a one way key, a jockey, a set square, connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper.

Theory
For a potentiometer with wire of uniform material density and thickness (cross-sectional area)
carrying a steady current, potential drop is proportional to the length of the wire.

where K is the drop of potential per unit length. It is called the potential gradi ent.
25

Diagram

Procedure

1. Draw a circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections as in figure.

2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting copper wires with a sand paper.
3. Connect the positive pole of the battery (eliminator) (a battery of constant e.m.f.) to the zero end
(P) of the potentiometer and the negative pole through a one-way key, an ammeter and a low
resistance rheostat to the other end (Q) of the potentiometer.
4. Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the end P of the potentiometer and the
negative terminal to the jockey.
5. Touch the end of the jockey to the end Q of the potentiometer.
6. Close the key and set the rheostat such that the voltmeter gives full scale deflection (3 V).
7. Touch the jockey at end P at 0 (zero) cm. The voltmeter will give zero deflection.
8. Touch the jockey at marks separated by 50 cm length of wire. Note the voltmeter reading in
each case.
9. Record your observations in tabular form as given ahead.
26

Observations and Calculations

Calculation from graph

Plot a graph choosing a suitable scale, for the values of potential drop V along y-axis and length
l along x-axis as shown in figure.
27

To Draw the Diagram of a Given Open Circuit Comprising at

Least a Battery, Resistor/Rheostat, Key, Ammeter and
Voltmeter. Mark the Components that are not Connected in
Proper Order and Correct the Circuit and Also the Circuit
Diagram

Aim
To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key,
ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct the
circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus and material

A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6 V), rheostat, resistance box (0 to 100 £2), two or one way key.
D.C. ammeter (0-3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0-3) V.

Theory
An open circuit is the combination of primary components of electric circuit in a such a manner that on
28

closing the circuit no current is drawn from the battery.

Diagram

Procedure
Ammeter: It should be connected in series, with the battery eliminator.
Voltmeter: It should be connected in parallel to the resistor.
Rheostat: It should be connected in series (in place of resistance coil) with the battery eliminator.
Resistance coil: It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostat).
One way key: It should be connected in series to the battery eliminator.
Correct circuit diagram: (Components connected in proper order)
29

SECTION- B EXPERIMENTS

1.To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave

mirror and to find the focal length
Aim
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal length.

Materials Required
Following are the materials required for this experiment:

 An optical bench with three uprights
 A concave mirror
 A mirror holder
 Two optical needles
 A knitting needle
 A half-metre scale

Theory
We use mirror formula for the determination of focal length.
Mirror formula is given as:
1f=1v+1u
From the above equation, we get the focal length as:
f=uvu+v
Where,

 f is the focal length of a concave mirror

 u is the distance of object needle from the pole of the mirror
 v is the distance of image needle from the pole of the mirror
The value of f will be negative. This is according to the sign-convention, u and v have negative values.

Ray Diagram
30

Procedure
To determine the rough focal length

1. Place the concave mirror in the mirror holder.

2. Take this mirror holder outside and face the mirror towards a distant building.
3. The image of the building is obtained on a wall which is painted white. Move the mirror forward and
backwards to obtain a sharp image on the wall.
4. The rough focal length of the mirror is equal to the distance between the mirror and the wall.

To set the mirror

1. The placement of the fixed upright should be near zero ends of the optical bench while the other two
uprights must be near the other ends.
2. Attach the mirror to the holder at the fixed upright such that the mirror faces towards the other end of the
bench and surface where it is perpendicular to the length.
3. To make the mirror surface vertical, use levelling screws.
4. At the base of the mirror upright, note the position of the index mark.

To set the object needle

1. Let O be the thin optical needle which is mounted on the second upright.
2. The object needle along with the clamp is moved 1.5 times to obtain a rough focal length of the mirror.
3. To make the object needle and pole of the mirror horizontal, adjust the height of the object needle.
4. Close left eye, open right eye to see an inverted and enlarged image of the needle such that the tip of the
image is at the centre of the mirror.
5. Record the index mark position at the base of the object needle.

To set the image needle

1. Attach the thick optical needle on the third upright and move it to the other end of the optical bench.
2. To make the tip of the image needle and tip of the image inline, adjust the height of the image needle by
closing the left eye and opening the right eye.
3. To check if parallax exists, move the eye towards the right and see that the tips get separated.
4. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
5. At the base of the image needle upright, record the index mark.
6. To determine the index corrections, all the index marks are to be recorded as observation 2.
31

7. Determine the index correction for the distance between the pole of the mirror, the tip of the object
needle and the image needle.
8. To get observations 2 and 1, move the object needle upright towards the mirror by 1 cm.
9. To get observations 4, 5, and 6, move the object needle away from the mirror by 1 cm.
10. Note all the observations.

Observations
The rough focal length of the given concave mirror = …….
The actual length of the knitting needle, x = ……
Observed distance between the mirror and object needle when knitting needle is placed in between them, y =
…….
Observed distance between the mirror and image needle when knitting needle is placed in between the, z =
……..
Index correction for the object distance, u = x – y = ±…….
Index correction for the image distance, v = x -z = ±…….
Table for u, v,
1u
, and
1v
Distance u (cm) 12 16 20

Distance v (cm)

y=uvu+v

Calculations
Calculations of the focal length by graphical method
u – v graph is obtained by considering u on the x’- axis and v on y’ – axis. According to sign conventions, u and
v are negative. Using the observation table, plot different points for different values of u and v. The graph
obtained will be a rectangular parabola.
On either axis draw a line OA making 45° and meeting at a point A. Draw AB and AD perpendicular on x’ and
y’- axis. For point A, the values of u and v will be the same. The coordinates at A is (2f, 2f) as u and v are same
for a concave mirror when the object is placed at the centre of curvature. Hence, u = v = R = 2f.

Explanation
 Applying mirror formula to point A, we get

1f=1u+1v

which can be written as u = v,

32

1f=2u

or

2v

and

f=u2

or

v2

.
Hence the focal length of the concave mirror is obtained from the coordinates of A.
f=−OD2=−….
∴ Mean value of f = -…….

 1uand1v

graph is obtained by considering a scale

1u

along x’ axis and

1v

along y’ axis. Both these values are negative according to sign convention. The graph obtained will be a
straight line and is plotted in the third quadrant. Both the axes are cut by a straight line at 45° making
equal intercepts. By measuring the distance of OA and OB, the focal length is obtained,
33

f=−1OA=−1OB=−…..cm

 For u-v graph, suitable scale must be selected to represent u along the X’-axis and v along the Y’-axis.
Distances such as u1 , u2 ,…. must be marked along OX’-axis and corresponding distances such as v1 ,
v2 ,…..must be marked along OY’-axis. To join u1 with v1 and other corresponding points, straight lines
must be drawn. All these straight lines intersect at point K. KL and KM are the perpendiculars on X’ and
Y’axes.
Then -f = OL = OM
∴ f = -…… cm

Result
The focal length of the given concave mirror is determined from the following:

 Focal length is calculated as,

34

f=uvu+v

= ……..cm

 (u – v) graph = -……cm
 (1u−1v)

graph = -………cm

 (u – v) graph = -…….cm

Precautions
 The uprights should be vertical.
 The principal axis of the mirror should be perpendicular while the central line of the optical bench
should be parallel.
 The eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle to locate the position of the image.
 Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle and the image obtained from the needle.
 The tips of object and image should be at the same height when compared to the pole of the concave
mirror.
 Index correction should be applied for u and v.

2. Length of Concave Mirror and Convex Lens

Aim
To determine the focal length of concave mirror by obtaining the image of a distant object.

Materials Required
A concave mirror, a mirror holder, a small screen fixed on a stand, a measuring scale and a distant
object (a tree visible clearly through an open window).

Theory/Principle
The spherical mirror with inward curved reflecting surface is called concave mirror. A beam of light
generally converges after reflection from its surface, hence it is also called convergent mirror (Fig. 1).
35

Reflection by Concave Mirror

A concave mirror obeys the laws of reflection of light. In a concave mirror, rays of light are parallel to
its principal axis and meet at a single point on the principal axis, after reflection from the mirror (as
shown in Fig. 2). This point is the principal focus of the mirror.
The distance between the pole and principal focus of mirror is called, focal length of the mirror.

Image of Distant Object

When a parallel beam of light coming from a distant object, such as tree or pole is incident on the
reflecting surface of a mirror, then after reflection, the rays converge at its principal focus as shown in
the Fig. 3.
36

A distant object (at infinity) when reflected by a concave mirror, forms a real, diminished, and inverted
image at the focus of the mirror.
As the distance between the pole 0 of the concave mirror and the focus F is the focal length of the
concave mirror. Thus, the focal length of a concave mirror can be estimated by obtaining a real image
of a distant object at its focus.
To obtain the position of image for a given object distance and focal length of a mirror, the following
mirror formula can be used.
1f=1v+1u
where, u = object distance,
v = image distance and f = focal length.
All u, v and f should be according to sign convention.
This expression is valid for concave as well as convex spherical mirrors.
Procedure

1. Fix a concave mirror in the mirror holder and place it on the table near an open window. Turn
the face of mirror towards a distant object (suppose a tree).
2. Place the screen, fitted to a stand, infront of the concave mirror. Adjust the distance of screen,
so that the image of the distant object is formed on it as given in the figure below. We can infer
from the figure that a clear and bright image could be obtained if the distant object (a tree), is
illuminated with sunlight and the screen is placed in the shade. A bright image of the Sun could
also be obtained, if the sunlight is made to fall directly on the concave mirror.
3. When a sharp image of distant object is obtained, then mark the position of the centre of the
stand holding the mirror and the screen as (a) and (b), respectively (see Fig. 4).
37

4. Measure the horizontal distance between the centre of the concave mirror and the screen with
the help of a measuring scale.
5. Record the observations in the observation table.
6. Repeat the experiment two more times by obtaining the images of two different distant objects
and measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen in each case. Record
them in the observation table.
7. Find the mean value of the focal length for all the observations for different objects.

Observations And Calculations

Least count of scale used = …………. mm = …………. cm

Distance between the

Name of the concave mirror and the screen (f) Mean focal length of

distant object the concave mirror (f) in (m)

in (cm) in (m)

Focal length for first object (f1) = ………… m

Focal length for second object (f2) = ………….. m
Focal length for third object (f3) = …………. m
Mean focal length = f1+f2+f33 = ………… m
Result
The approximate value of focal length of the given concave mirror is ………… m.

Precautions
38

1. Concave mirror should be placed near an open window through which sufficient sunlight enters,
with its polished surface facing the distant object.
2. There should not be any obstacle in the path of rays of light incident on the concave mirror.
3. If the image of the Sun has to be formed, then it should be focused on the screen only. The
image of the Sun should never be seen directly with the naked eyes. Sunlight should never be
focused on any part of the body as it can burn it.
4. In order to obtain a sharp and clear image of the distant object on the wall/ground, it must be
ensured that the object is well illuminated, so that amount of light incident on the concave mirror
is sufficient to produce a well illuminated and distinct image.
5. The measuring scale should be parallel to the base of both the stands.
6. The mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the measuring scale for
precise measurements.

3. To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens

3.To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u
and v or between 1/u and 1/v.
Aim
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.

Materials Required
1. One optical bench
2. Metre scal
3. Index needle or a knitting needle
4. Three uprights (with clamps)
5. A convex lens of less than 20 cm focal length
6. Two sharp-edged needles
7. Spirit level

Theory
1. For a body positioned at a distance ‘u’ from the optical centre of a thin convex lens of focal length ‘f’, an
inverted and real image is generated on the lens’s other side at a distance ‘v’ from the optical centre. The
relationship between these quantities is:
2. 1f=1v–1u
3. From this equation, the focal length is,
4. 1f=u−vuv
5. ⇒
6. f=uvu−v

Ray Diagram
39

Procedure
1. Fix the convex lens in the holder.
2. Use the lens to focus an object like a tree on a white screen or a wall.
3. Precisely focus the image of the object on the wall or screen until a sharp image is obtained.
4. Calculate the distance between the lens and the wall or screen. It will be the rough focal length of the
lens.
5. Mount the holder with the lens in a locked upright, and place the upright at the 50cm mark.
6. Tune the orientation of the lens in such a way that its surface is perpendicular and vertical to the
optical bench’s length.
7. Maintain the upright fixed in the above position throughout.
8. Use the thin optical needle as the object (O). Fix it in the outer, laterally movable upright close to zero
ends.
9. Adjust the object needle upright, and place it at a distance close to 1.5 times the acquired approximate
focal length of the lens.
10. Tune the height of the object needle to adjust its tip to lie on the horizontal plane through the lens’s
optical centre. Record the position of the index mark on the foot of the object needle upright.
11. Close your right eye, and open the left eye. Then watch from the other terminal of the optical bench.
The image’s tip should be present in the middle of the lens.
12. Place the thick optical image needle in the fourth upright close to the other terminal of the optical
bench.
13. Tune the height of the image needle in a way that its tip is visible in line with the image’s tip when
seen with the left eye open.
14. Look towards the right. The tips will be separated. The image needle tip and the image tip have
parallax. Clear the parallax tip to tip.
15. Record the position of the index mark on the foot of the image needle upright.
16. Note down the position of the index mark on the foot of the upright of the lens, the image needle,
and the object needle in the second observation column.
17. Calculate the index correction for length between the tip of the object needle and the optical centre
of the lens. Next, find the distance between the tip of the image needle and the optical centre of the lens,
as mentioned.
18. Adjust the object needle upright towards the mirror in steps 1cm to obtain observations 1 and 2.
Repeat the process.
19. Adjust the object needle upright away from the mirror in steps of 1cm to obtain observations 6, 5,
40

and 4.
20. Note down all the observations as shown ahead.

Observations
The rough or approximate focal length of the convex lens = …….. cm
The real length of the index needle x = …….. cm
The visible distance between the lens and the object needle when the index needle is positioned between
them, y = …….. cm
The observed distance between the lens and the image needle when the index needle is positioned
between them, z = …….. cm
Corrected distance for the object distance ‘u’, x-y = …. cm
Corrected distance for the image distance ‘v’, x-z = …. cm
Table for u, v; 1/u and 1/v

Calculation
Calculation of the focal length by the graphical method:
1) u-v Graph
Choose a suitable but the same scale to denote v along the Y-axis and u along X-axis. As per sign
conventions, v is positive, and u is negative. Plot the points for different rates of v and u from the
observation table in the second section. The graph is a rectangular hyperbola, as represented in the graph
between u and v.
Draw a line OA creating an angle of 45° with either axis bisecting ∠YOX’ and reaching the curve at
point A. Draw AC and AB perpendicular on the Y and X’-axis, respectively. The values of v and u are
the same for point A. The coordinates of point A should be (2f, 2f), as for a convex lens, when v=2f,
u=2f.
Therefore, AB = AC = 2f or OB=OC = 2f
This implies that f = OB/2 and f = OC/2
1. Mean value of f = …..cm
41

2) Choose an apt but the same scale to denote 1/u along the X’-axis and 1/v along the Y-axis. As per
sign conventions, 1/u is negative, and 1/v is positive. Plot the points for varied sets of values of 1/u and
1/v from the observation table. The graph evolves to be a straight line as represented in the graph
between 1/v and 1/u.
The straight- line slices the two-axis OY and OX’ at an angle of 45° at points Q and P, respectively,
creating equal intercepts on the axis. Calculate the distance between OQ and OP.
Then the focal length, f = 1/OP = 1/ OQ

Explanation
Another u-v Graph (same as a concave mirror)
Choose an apt but the same scale to denote v along the Y-axis and u along the X’-axis. Note the points at
distances v1, v2, v3,……. etc., along the OY-axis for various sets of observations from the resulting
table.
42

Create straight lines connecting u3 with u1 with v1, u2 with v2, u3 with v3,………. etc. The lines meet
at the intersection point K, as represented in the graph below.
Draw KM and KL perpendicular on the Y-axis and X’-axis, respectively.

F = OL = OM
= …….. cm.
Result
The focal length of the convex as calculated from

Precautions
a) Tips of the image needle and the object needle must lie at the exact height as the lens’s centre.
b) Parallax must be corrected from tip to tip by placing the eye at a distance minimum of 30 cm apart
from the needle.
c) The object needle must be positioned at such a distance that only an inverted and real image of the
object needle is produced.
4) Index correction for u and v must be applied.

4.To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens
The distance between the convex lens or a concave mirror and the focal point of a lens or mirror is called the
focal length. Focal length can be positive or negative. A lens is a piece of transparent glass which concentrates
or disperses light rays when passing through them by refraction. In this article, let us know how to find the focal
length of a concave lens using a convex lens.

Aim
43

To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.

Materials Required
1. An optical bench with four upright
2. A convex lens with a lens focal length
3. A concave lens with a more focal length
4. Two lens holders
5. One thick and one thin optical needle
6. A knitting needle
7. A half-metre scale

Theory
We use the lens formula in this experiment to calculate the focal length of the concave lens:
f=uvu−v
Where,

 f is the focal length of the concave lens L1

 u is the distance of I from the optical centre of the lens L2
 v is the distance of I’ from the optical centre of the lens L2.
From sign convention, the f obtained from the above formula will be negative as v > u and u – v is negative.

Ray Diagram
44

Procedure
To determine the rough focal length of the convex lens

1. Place the convex lens on the lens holder.

2. Now face the lens towards a distant tree or building.
3. Obtain the image either on the white wall or on a screen and keep moving the lens either forward or
backwards till a sharp image is formed.
4. To determine the rough focal length of the lens, measure the distance between the lens and the screen.

To set the convex lens

1. Place the lens on the holder with fixed upright such that the upright is kept at 50 cm mark.
2. The lens should be placed in such a way that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the
optical bench.
3. The upright should be kept in this position throughout.

To set the object needle

1. Place the thin optical needle which is the object needle O near-zero end of the upright which is moveable.
2. Place the object needle upright at a distance nearly 1.5 times the focal length of the lens.
3. The tip of the needle should be horizontal to the optical centre of the lens.
4. Note the position of the index mark below the object needle upright.
45

5. To see an inverted and enlarged image of the object needle which is in the middle of the lens, close the left
eye and see with a right eye open.
6. On the other end of the optical bench, place the image needle on the fourth upright.
7. The tip of the image needle should be in line with the image that is seen with the right eye.
8. To see the parallax, move the eye towards the right. The image needle and object needle are no longer in
line.
9. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
10. Note the position of the index mark at the base of the image needle upright.
11. Record the position of the index marks.
12. Now place the concave lens holder on the I side of the convex lens.
13. The upright and convex lens should be placed at a distance from each other.
14. The concave lens should be placed such that it coincides with the principal axes.

To set the image needle at I’

2. Repeat steps 4 and 5.

To get more observations

1. Repeat the experiment by moving the object needle towards the lens by 2cm.
2. Repeat the experiment by moving the object needle away from the lens by 2cm.
3. Record all the observations.

Observations
The rough focal length of a convex lens = ……….
The actual length of the knitting needle, x = ………
Observed distance between the concave lens and image = ……..
Needle when knitting needle is placed between them, y = ……..
Index correction for u as well as v, x – y = ……..
Table for u, v and f

Position of Observed Corrected

Sl. f=uvu−v
O L1 at I L2 at I’ u= v= u v
no in cm
in O1 in in O2 in in IO2 in I’O2 in in in
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm

1. f1 =

2. f2 =

3. f3 =

Calculations
1. To find observed u by finding the difference of position of L 2 and I.
2. To find observed v by finding the difference of position of L 2 and I’.
3. Corrected values of u and v are obtained by applying index correction.
46

4. Calculate

f=uvu−v

5. Finding the mean of f

Meanf=f1+f2+f33

Result
The focal length of the given concave lens = …….. cm.

Precautions
2. The lens must be clean.
3. The focal length of the convex lens should be lesser than the concave lens.
4. For u and v index correction should be applied.
5. To obtain a real and inverted image, the needle should be kept at a certain distance.
6. To avoid parallax, a distance of at least 30 cm should be maintained between the tip of the needle and eye.

5.To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting

a graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation
Aim
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence
and angle of deviation.

Materials Required
 A drawing board
 A white sheet of paper
 A prism
 Drawing pins
 Pencil
 A half-metre scale
 Office pins
 Protractor
 Graph paper

Theory
Refraction occurs when a light ray travels from one medium to another resulting in deviation of the emergent
ray from that of the incident ray. Following is the refractive index of the material used in the prism:
n=sin(A+Dm2)sin(A2)
47

Where Dm is the angle of minimum deviation and A is the prism angle.

Ray Diagram

Refraction through prism at different angles

Procedure
1. Place the white sheet of paper on the drawing board and fix it with the help of drawing pins.
2. XX’ is the straight line drawn parallel to the length of the paper such that it is in the middle of the paper.
3. Mark points Q 1 , Q 2 , Q 3 …… on the straight line XX’ at a distance of 5 cm each.
4. N1 Q 1 , N2 Q2 ,… are the normals that are drawn on the points Q 1 , Q 2 ,… as shown in the ray diagram.
5. Make angles of 35°, 40°,….,60° by drawing straight lines R1 Q1 , R2 Q2 ,…….. With respect to the normals.
6. To take one edge of the prism for all the observations, mark any corner of the prism as A.
7. Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XX’ and on the point Q 1 and also in the middle of
AB.
8. Mark the boundary of the prism.
9. On the line, R1 Q1 , fix office pins vertically and mark them as P 1 and P2 . the distance between these pins
should not be less than 10mm.
10. Through the prism face, AC, look for the images of the points P 1 and P2 .
11. Close your left eye and with the right eye open, bring it in line with the two images.
12. Fix the other two office pins vertically and name them as P 3 and P4 . These pins should be 10cm apart
from each other. P3 and P4 should be in one straight with respect to the images of P 1 and P2 .
13. Encircle the pricks of pins P3 and P4 .
14. For points, Q 2 , Q 3 ,…. for angle 40°, 45°,…..60°, repeat the steps 7 to 13.

To measure D in a different case

1. To get emergent rays S1 T1 , S2 T2 ,….. draw straight lines through P4 and P5 .

2. Inward the boundary of the prism to produce T1 S1 , T2 ,S2 ….. so that they meet incident rays R1 Q1 , R2 Q2 ,….
at points F1 , F2 ,…
3. To obtain the angle of deviation D1 , D2 ,…. measure the angles K 1 F1 S1 , K 2 F2,S2,…….
4. Note these angles.
48

To measure angle A

1. To get angle A, measure the angle BAC in the boundary of the prism.
2. Record the observations.

Observations
The angle of prism, A = 60°

Serial no. Angle of incidence ∠i Angle of deviation ∠D

1 35° 43°

2 40° 39°

3 45° 38°

4 50° 38°

5 55° 39°

6 60° 42°

Calculations
To plot the graph between the angle of incidence ∠i and the angle of deviation ∠D, take ∠i along the x-axis and
∠D along the y-axis. Minimum deviation Dm can be found from the graph which would corresponding to the
lowest point in the graph.

Let the value of angle of minimum deviation, Dm = 37°

Then,
49

n=sin(A+Dm2)sin(A2)
Putting the A = 60° and Dm = 37° in the above equation, we get n = 1.5

Result
 The angle of minimum deviation, Dm = 37°
 Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = 1.5
 The graph indicates as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation first decreases to attain
the minimum value of Dm and then again increases with the angle of incidence.

Precautions
 35°-60° is the angle of incidence that needs to be maintained.
 The placement of the pins must be vertical.
 The placement of two pins should be such that the distance is not more than 10mm.
 To represent incident and emergent rays, arrowheads must be marked.
 The angle of prism used should be the same for all the observations.
6.To Determine Refractive Index of a Glass slab using a Travelling
Microscope
A Travelling microscope is a compound microscope that is fitted on a vertical scale. It carries a vernier scale
along the main scale and can be moved upward or downward. Below is an experiment to determine refractive
index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Aim
To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Materials Required
1. 3 glass slabs of different thicknesses but the same material
2. A travelling microscope
3. Lycopodium powder

Theory
The principle behind glass slab
When a glass slab is placed on a horizontal surface, and its bottom surface is viewed from the top, it appears to
be elevated due to refraction. The apparent thickness of the slab is determined by the distance between the
apparent bottom and the top of the glass slab. The refractive index with respect to the medium and air is given
as:
n=realthicknessoftheslabapparentthicknessoftheslab

Diagram
50

Procedure
Adjustment of a travelling microscope

1. To get sufficient light, place the travelling microscope (M) near the window.
2. To make the base of the microscope horizontal, adjust the levelling screw.
3. For clear visibility of the cross wire, adjust the position of the eyepiece.
4. For the vertical scale of the microscope, determine the vernier constant.
5. Mark point P on the microscope’s base using black ink.
6. To avoid the parallax between the cross-wires and the mark P, make the microscope vertical and focus
on P.
7. Let R1 be the vernier scale and main scale reading on the vertical scale.
8. Place the glass slab with the least thickness over the mark P.
9. Let P1 be the image of the cross mark. Move the microscope upwards and focus on P 1 .
10. For reading, R2 on the vertical scale repeat step 7.
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the slab’s surface.
12. To focus the particle near S, raise the microscope further upward.
13. For reading, R3 on the verticle scale repeat step 7.
14. Repeat the above steps for different thickness glass slabs.
15. Record the observations.

Result
The ratio
R3−R1R3−R2
is constant and gives the refractive index of the glass slab.

Precautions
1. The parallax in a microscope should be removed properly.
51

2. To avoid backlash error, the microscope should be moved upward.

7.To Find The Refractive Index Of A Liquid By Using A Convex Lens

And Plane Mirror
Aim
To find the refractive index of a liquid using a convex lens and plane mirror.

Apparatus
 Convex Lens
 Plane Mirror
 Optical Needle
 The clean transparent liquid in a clean beaker
 An iron stand with base and clamp arrangement
 Plane glass slab
 Plumb Line
 Spherometer
 Half metre scale

Theory
Let us consider f1 and f2 to be the focal length of the glass convex lens and liquid lens respectively and let F be
the focal length of their combination, then
1F=1f1+1f2
From the lens maker’s formula
We have,
1f2=(n−1)[1R1−1R2]
Simplifying further, we get
1f2=(n−1)R
Inserting values of f2 , n can be calculated.

Diagram
52

Procedure
For the focal length of the convex lens,

 Choose a convex lens and find its rough focal length.

 Place the plane mirror on the horizontal base of the iron stand
 Place the convex lens on the plane mirror
 Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally above the lens at a
distance equal to its rough focal length.
 Bring the tip of the needle to the principal vertical axis of the lens so the tip of the needle appears to be
touching the tip of its image.
 Move the needle up and down and remove the parallax between the tips of the needle and its image.
 Measure the distance between the tip and upper surface of the lens using a plumb line and half metre
scale.
 Also, measure the distance between the tip and the surface of its plane mirror.

For the Focal Length of the Combination

 Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put a convex mirror over it.
 Repeat 6, 7 and 8.
 Record your observations.

(c) For the radius of curvature of the convex lens surface

Calculations
1f2=1F−1f1
n=1+Rf2

Precautions
1. Only a few drops of liquid should be taken so as not to thicken the layer.
2. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.
3. The liquid taken should be transparent.

9.To Draw The I-V Characteristic Curve of a P-N Junction In Forward

Bias and Reverse Bias
In a standard diode, forward bias and reverse bias takes place. Let us know how to draw the I-V characteristic
curve of a P-N junction in forward bias and reverse bias.

Aim
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a P-N junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
53

Materials Required
1. A P-N junction diode
2. A 3-volt battery
3. A 50-volt battery
4. A high resistance rheostat
5. One 0-3 volt voltmeter
6. One 0-50 volt voltmeter
7. One 0-100 mA ammeter
8. One 0-100 μA ammeter
9. One way key
10. Connecting wires
11. Piece of sandpaper

Theory
Forward bias characteristics
The junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the positive terminal
of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. With an
increase in the voltage, the current also increases. For Si diode, at 0.7 V the current increases suddenly.
Reverse bias characteristics
The junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of
the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. With an increase in
the voltage, there is a small change in the current but the reverse current increases to a higher value with an
increase in the voltage.

Diagram
54

Procedure
For forward bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. For voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA), the least count and zero error should be noted.
4. To get the zero reading from the voltmeter and milli-ammeter, rheostat should be brought near the
negative end by inserting the key K.
5. To apply the forward bias voltage (VF) of 0.1V, the contact should be moved towards the positive end.
The current remains zero.
6. Keeping current zero, increase the forward bias voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode.
7. To record a small current using milli-ammeter, increase the VF to 0.4 V.
8. Increase the VF by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When the VF becomes 0.7 V, the current
will increase rapidly.
9. When VF = 0.72 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as forward breakdown stage.
10. Take out the key if the forward current won’t change as VF increased beyond forward breakdown.
11. Record the observations.

For reverse bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
4. To get zero reading from the voltmeter V and micro-ammeter μA, insert the key K and bring the rheostat
near the positive end.
5. To apply reverse bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, move the rheostat to the negative end so as to flow the
reverse current.
6. Increase VR by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When VR becomes 20 V, the current will
increase rapidly.
7. When VR = 25 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as reverse breakdown stage. Record
the current reading and take off the key.
8. Record the observations.

Observations
For forward bias
Range of voltmeter = …….V
Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Zero error of voltmeter = ……..V
Range of milli-ammeter = …….mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = …….mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter = ……..mA
Table for forward bias voltage and forward current
55

Sl.no Forward bias voltage VF in V Forward current IF in mA

For reverse bias

Range of voltmeter = …….V
Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Zero error of voltmeter = ……..V
Range of micro-ammeter = …….μA
Least count of micro-ammeter = …….μA
Zero error of micro-ammeter = ……..μA
Table for reverse bias voltage and reverse current

Sl.no Reverse bias voltage VR in V Reverse current IR in μA

Plotting of Graphs
For forward bias
Plot a graph between VF and IF taking VF on the x-axis and IF on the y-axis. The graph obtained is known as
forward bias characteristic curve.

For reverse bias

56

Plot a graph between VR and IR taking VR on the negative x-axis and negative IR on the y-axis. The graph
obtained is known as reverse bias characteristic curve.

Result
Junction resistance for forward bias = …… ohms
Junction resistance for reverse bias = ……… ohms.

Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used when the circuit is being used.
3. Beyond breakdown, forward bias voltage should not be applied.
4. Beyond breakdown, reverse bias voltage should not be applied.