EXPERIMENT – 1

Aim: To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.

Apparatus: A metallic conductor (coil or a resistance wire), a battery eliminator, one way key, a voltmeter and an
ammeter of appropriate range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper, a scale.

Theory: Ohm’s Law Statement: Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and temperature, remain constant.

Ohm’s law only holds true if the provided temperature and the other physical factors remain constant.

Formulae Used:
(i) The resistance (R) of the given wire (resistance coil) is obtained by
𝑉
Ohm’s Law 𝑅 =
𝐼
Where, V: Potential difference between the ends of the given resistance coil. (Conductor)
I: Current flowing through it.
(ii) Specific resistance (  ) of the material of given wire is given
𝜋𝐷 2
𝜌=𝑅 𝐿
Where, D: Diameter of given wire
L: Length of given wire.
Circuit Diagram: (to be drawn on left side in practical file)

Observation:
(i) Range:
Range of given voltmeter = ……………………….
Range of given ammeter = ………………………..
(ii) Least count:
Least count of voltmeter = ……………………….
Least count of ammeter = ………………………..
Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:
Sr No. Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading V (volt)
(Ω)
1. R1=………..Ω
2. R2=………..Ω
3. R3=………..Ω
4. R4=………..Ω
5. R5=………..Ω
Measurement of diameter (D) of the wire:
i. Least count of screw gauge: 0.001 cm
ii. Linear Scale Reading (N) = 0 mm
iii. No. of circular scale divisions coinciding (n) = 45
iv. Circular Scale Reading = n x (L.C.) = 0.45mm = 0.045cm
v. Observed diameter D = N + n x L.C. = 0.45mm = 0.045cm
Length of given wire, L = 50cm
Calculation:
𝑹𝟏 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 +𝑅4 +𝑅5
I. Mean value of R = 5
= ……………………..Ω (put values from table)
2
𝜋𝐷 2 3.14 × (0.45 × 10−3)
II. Specific Resistance, 𝜌 = 𝑅 𝐿
=𝑅 0.5
= ………………….. Ω-m (put values of R and calculate ρ)

Graph between potential difference & current: (to be drawn and pasted on left side in practical file)
Scale: (you can change scale as per requirement)
X – axis : 1 cm = 0.1 V of potential difference
Y – axis: 1 cm = 0.1 A of current
The graph comes out to be a straight line.

Result:
I. It is found that the ratio V/I is constant, hence current voltage
relationship is established i.e. V  I or Ohm’s Law is verified.
II. Value of unknown resistance = ………………. 
III. Specific resistance of material of given wire  ……………… Ω-m
Precautions:
 Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
 The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
Source of Error:
 Rheostat may have high resistance.
 The instrument screws may be loose.
EXPERIMENT – 2
Aim: To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.
Apparatus: A meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, battery eliminator, a jockey, a
oneway key, a resistance wire, set square, connecting wires and sandpaper.
Circuit Diagram: (to be drawn on left side in practical file)

Theory:
Wheatstone Bridge:
 Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge, calculates the unknown resistance by balancing
two legs of the bridge circuit. One leg includes the component of unknown resistance.
 The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one unknown resistor and one variable
resistor connected in the form of a bridge. This bridge is very reliable as it gives accurate measurements.
 The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their resistances is equal,
and no current flows through the galvanometer. This condition can be achieved by adjusting the known
resistance and variable resistance.
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆
Formulae Used:
P=𝑙 ×𝑟
Q = (100 − 𝑙 ) × 𝑟
S=X
Hence the unknown resistance X is given by:

Where, R = known resistance placed in left gap.

X = Unknown resistance in right gap of meter bridge.
𝑙 =length of meter bridge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm)
Observation:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Calculation: ( show all calculation for unknown resistance)

For unknown resistance, X
𝑥1 = … … … … … … … ….Ω
𝑥2 = ⋯ … … … … … … … .. Ω
𝑥3 = ⋯ … … … … … … .. Ω
𝑥4 = ⋯ … … … … … … … Ω
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4
Mean value of X = 4
=………………………. 

Result: Value of unknown resistance = …………………………. 

Precautions:
 All plugs in resistance box should be tight.
 Plug in key, K should be inserted only while taking observations.
Sources of Error:
 Plugs may not be clean.
 Instrument screws maybe loose.
EXPERIMENT – 3
Aim: To verify the law of combination series of resistances using meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge)

Apparatus: A meter bridge, a battery eliminator, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set
square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Circuit Diagram: (to be drawn on left side in practical file)

Theory:
Wheatstone Bridge:
 Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge, calculates the unknown resistance by balancing
two legs of the bridge circuit. One leg includes the component of unknown resistance.
 The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one unknown resistor and one variable
resistor connected in the form of a bridge. This bridge is very reliable as it gives accurate measurements.
 The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their resistances is equal,
and no current flows through the galvanometer. This condition can be achieved by adjusting the known
resistance and variable resistance.
𝑷 𝑹
=
𝑸 𝑺

Formulae Used:
 The unknown resistance X is given by:

Where, R = known resistance placed in left gap.

X = Unknown resistance in right gap of meter bridge.
𝑙 =length of meter bridge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm)
 For series combination 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
Observations:

1.
2. r1=………..Ω
3.
1.
2. r2 =………..Ω
3.
1.
2. Rs =………..Ω
3.

Calculations: (Show calculation for r1 r2 and Rs )

For 𝒓𝟏
𝑥1 = ⋯ … … .. Ω, 𝑥2 = ⋯ … … … … Ω, 𝑥3 = ⋯ … … … … … … .. Ω
𝑥1+𝑥2 +𝑥3
Mean resistance 𝑟1 = 3
= ………………….Ω

For 𝒓𝟐
𝑥1 = ⋯ … … .. Ω, 𝑥2 = ⋯ … … … … Ω, 𝑥3 = ⋯ … … … … … … .. Ω

𝑥1+𝑥2 +𝑥3
Mean resistance 𝑟2 = = ………………….Ω
3

For 𝑹𝒔
𝑥1 = ⋯ … … .. Ω, 𝑥2 = ⋯ … … … … Ω, 𝑥3 = ⋯ … … … … … … .. Ω

𝑥1 +𝑥2 +𝑥3
Mean resistance 𝑅𝑠 = 3
= ………………….Ω

i) In series:
Experimental value of Rs = …………………Ω ( from table)
Theoretical value of Rs = r1 + r2 = ……………Ω

Result: Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of RS are same. Hence the law of
resistance in series i.e. RS = r1 + r2 is verified.
Precautions:
(i) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ii) Move the jockey gently over the wire & don’t rub it.
(iii) All plugs in resistant box should be tight.
Sources of Error:
(i) The plugs may not be clean.
(ii) The instrument screws maybe loose.
EXPERIMENT – 4
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery eliminator, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000 
and 500  ), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper.
Circuit Diagram: (to be drawn on left side in practical file)

Formulae Used:
(i) The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method:
𝑅𝑆
𝐺=
𝑅−𝑆
Where R: resistance connected in series with the galvanometer
S: shunt resistance
(ii) Figure of merit:
𝐸
k = (𝑅+𝐺)𝜃
Where E : emf of the cell
 : deflection produced with resistance R.
Observations:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Mean value of G=……………..Ω
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mean value of k =……………..A/div

Calculation:

For half deflection:

G1 =………………, G2 =……………., G3 =……………., G4 =………………..
𝐺1+𝐺2+𝐺3 +𝐺4
Mean value of G = 4
= ……………………. Ω

For Figure of merit:

K1 =………………, K2 =……………., K3 =……………., K4 =………………..
𝐾1+𝐾2+𝐾3+𝐾4
Mean value of K = = ……………………. A/div
4

Result:
(i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half – deflection method: G = ………………. Ω
(ii) Figure of merit, K = ………………………….A/div

Precautions:
(i) All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
(ii) The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
(iii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit. Otherwise for small
resistance, an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter & damage them.

Sources of error:
(i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean.
(ii) The screws of the instruments maybe loose.
(iii) The emf of the battery may not be constant.
EXPERIMENT – 5
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v
Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens, lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needles & a
half-metre scale.
Ray Diagram: (to be drawn on left side in practical file)

Theory:
When an object is placed beyond focus, the image formed is Real and inverted.
Formula Used:
The relation between u, v and f for convex lens is:
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
Where f: focal length of convex lens
u: distance of object needle from lens’ optical centre.
v: distance of image needle from lens’ optical centre.
Observations:
(i) Rough focal length of the lens = …………… cm

(Plot graph as per the reading & paste it on left side of practical file)
Result:
The focal length of the convex as calculated from

Precautions:
(i) Tips of object & image needles should be at the same height as the centre of the lens.
(ii) Parallax should be removed from tip-to-tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm. away from the needle.
(iii) The image & the object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.
EXPERIMENT – 6
Aim: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence and
angle of deviation.

Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale, office pins, graph paper
& protector.

Ray Diagram: (to be drawn on left side in practical file)

Theory:
Refraction occurs when a light ray travels from one medium to another resulting in deviation of the emergent ray from
that of the incident ray.
Refraction through a prism is the phenomenon of light bending when it passes through a prism due to a change in speed
as it moves from one medium to another

Angle of deviation:
The angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray is called the angle of deviation. This angle measures how
much the emergent ray has deviated from the incident ray.
Angle of deviation depends on angle of incidence.

Angle of minimum deviation:

The angle of minimum deviation is the smallest angle at which a prism bends light. It occurs when the angle of deviation
is at its minimum for a specific angle of incidence.
The refractive index,  of the material of the prism is given by:
𝐴+𝛿𝑚
sin( )
2
𝜇= 𝐴
sin( )
2
Observation:

1. 350
2. 400
3. 450
4. 500
5. 550
6. 600
Graph: (to be drawn and pasted on left side in practical file)
Scale: along x-axis 1cm = 50 (angle of incidence 𝒊)
Along y-axis 1cm = 20 ( angle od deviation δ)

Result:
(i) From 𝑖 𝑉𝑠 𝛿 graph we see that as  𝑖 increases,  𝛿 first decreases, attains a minimum value (𝛿𝑚 ) & then again
starts increasing for further increase in  𝑖 .
(ii) Angle of minimum deviation 𝛿𝑚 = ……………………………….

Precautions:
(i) The angle of incidence should be between 30o – 60o .
(ii) The pins should be fixed vertical.
(iii) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm.

Sources of Error:
(i) Pin pricks may be thick.
(ii) Measurement of angles maybe wrong.
EXPERIMENT – 7
Aim: To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
Apparatus: A marker, glass slab, travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.
Theory & Formulae Used:
The principle behind glass slab:
When a glass slab is placed on a horizontal surface, and its bottom surface is viewed from the top, it appears to be
elevated due to refraction. The apparent thickness of the slab is determined by the distance between the apparent
bottom and the top of the glass slab. The refractive index with respect to the medium and air is given as:

Ray Diagram: (to be drawn on left side in practical file)

Observation:

Result: The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as  =………….
Precautions:
(i) Microscope once focused on the cross mark, the focusing should not be disturbed throughout the experiment. Only
rack and pinion screw should be turned to move the microscope upward.
(ii) Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on top of slab.
(iii) Eye piece should be so adjusted that cross-wires are distinctly seen.
EXPERIMENT – 8

Aim: To draw the 𝐼 – 𝑉 characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward bias & reverse bias.

Apparatus: A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a battery eliminator, a high resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter (0-3v), a
milli ammeter (0-.30 mA), one – way key, connecting wires.

Circuit Diagram: (to be drawn on left side in practical file)

Forward bias Reverse Bias

Theory:
Forward bias characteristics:
The junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. With an increase in the
voltage, the current also increases. For Si diode, at 0.7 V the current increases suddenly.
Reverse bias characteristics:
The junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. With an increase in the
voltage, there is a small change in the current but the reverse current increases to a higher value with an increase in the
voltage.

Observations:

For forward bias:

Range of Voltmeter =……………………………..
Least count of voltmeter =……………………..
Range of milli-ammeter = ……………………..
Least count of milli-ammeter = ………………
S.no. Forward Bias Voltage (V) Forward Current (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
For Reverse bias:
Range of Voltmeter =……………………………..
Least count of voltmeter =……………………..
Range of micro-ammeter = ……………………..
Least count of micro-ammeter = ………………
S.no. Reverse Bias Voltage (V) Reverse Current (µA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Graph: (to be drawn and pasted on left side in practical file)
Scale: Along +𝒙 -axis 1cm = ……….V
Along +𝒚-axis 1cm = …………mA
Along −𝒙 -axis 1cm = ……….V
Along −𝒚-axis 1cm = …………µA

Result: The obtained curves are the characteristics curves of the semi-conductor diode.
Precautions:
(i) All connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ii) Key should be used in circuit & opened when the circuit is not being used.
(iii) Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Sources of error: The junction diode supplied maybe faulty.