SKVV - GR XII PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS XII (2024-25)

PHYSICS (THEORY)
CODE - 042
Time: 3 hrs. Max Marks: 30

PHYSICS PRACTICALS
The record to be submitted by the students at the time of their annual examination has to
include:

Record of at least 8 Experiments [with 4 from each section], to be performed by

the students.

Record of at least 6 Activities [with 3 each from section A and section B], to be
performed by the students.

The Report of the project carried out by the students.

SECTION–A

1. OHM’S LAW
AIM:
To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Unknown resistance, Battery eliminator, milli ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wire, rheostat
FORMULA:
R = V/I ohms
P = RA / L Ohm m
Where
R = Resistance (ohms)
V = Voltage (Volts)
I = Current (Amperes)
L = Length of wire(cm)
P = resistivity of the wire ( ohm m )
PROCEDURE:
a) The connections are made as shown in the circuit.
b. The rheostat is adjusted so that the current flouring through the resistance coil varies. The reading of the ammeter and
voltmeter are noted.
c). Every time the current through the resistance coil varies, the potential difference across A varies. The reading of the
voltmeter and ammeter are tabulated
d). The unknown resistance is calculated using the formula
e) A graph is plotted between voltage and current. The slope of the straight line give the resistance
f) length of wire is measured.
DIAGRAM and MODEL GRAPH

I
OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS
TABLE 1 : Finding Resistance of the wire
1
Least count of Ammeter = _____________ 0 - 15
mA and Range ____________ mA , Error NIL
0.05 Volt and Range _____________
Least count of Voltmeter = _____________ 0-3 Volt Error NIL
100
Length of the given wire = _______________ cm

S. NO AMMETER READING VOLTMETER READING Resistance

I ( Ampere) V ( volt) R = V/I ohm
0.3 1 3.3
0.5 1.4 2.8
0.8 2.2 2.75
1 2.7 2.7
1.3 3.6 2.7
MEAN = 2.85 OHM
TABLE 2 : Finding Radius of the wire

Pitch = Distance moved by the screw 1

= _________mm
No of rotation of the screw

Least count = Pitch / no of circular scale division = 1 mm / 100 = 0.01 mm

Zero Error = NIL
s.no P.S.R ( mm ) CIRULAR SCALE READING (Div) Total = P.S. R + N X L.C
A N (mm)
0 61 0.61
0 57 0.57
0 63 0.63
0 60 0.60
D = 0.60 /2 mm

-6
P = R A / L Oh m m Resistivit y _____0.80
_____x__10
____ ohm m

RESULT:
The unknown resistance of the given wire by
0.80 x 10 -6 ohm m
2.85  and Resistivity ________________
1) Resistance ____________
2.8
2) Graph _____________ 
2.8
3) Resistance per length (from graph) ______________ /
SOURCE OF ERROR
1) Excessive current may heat the coil and resistance will be affected.
2) Excessive current may damage the pointer when it goes out of scale.
PRECAUTIONS:
1) Less amount of current must be passed
2) The connections must be light.
3) Care should to take while connecting ammeter and voltmeter for this connects polarities.
SECTION – A
2 Meter Bridge-Determination of Unknown resistance of a wire

Aim: To find the resistance of the given wire using meter bridge

Requirements: Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, resistance box, Battery
Eliminator, jockey, unknown resistance wire, connecting wires.

Theory:

Wheatstone’s bridge: A meter bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone’s bridge

experiment as shown in figure. If there is no deflection in the galvanometer, then P  R
Q S
which is the condition of balance of bridge. We use this relation to find the unknown
resistance S of the given material of wire.

The wire whose resistance is to be found is connected in the arm CD. A resistance box
from which a known resistance can be taken out is connected across the gap AB. A sensitive
galvanometer followed by a jockey is connected between the points B and D so as to slide
over the wire AD. A cell with suitable rheostat is connected across AC.
Observation:

(i) To find the unknown resistance of the given wire:

Value of Balancing Resistance

known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
S.NO resistance, R S=R (100𝑙 −𝑙)
(Ω) (cm) (cm) Ω

1. 1 28.8 71.2 2.47

2. 2 44 56 2.54
3 51 49 2.88
3. 60.5 39.5
4 2.61
4. 64.5 35.5 2.75
5. 5
Mean, S= 2.65 Ω

Procedure:

a) Make the connections as shown in figure. Take out suitable resistance R from the
resistance box.
b) Touch the jockey at point A; see that there is deflection on galvanometer on one side.
Touch the jockey now on the point C of the wire. The deflection in galvanometer
should be on the other side. If it is so, connections are correct. If the deflection is one-
sided, adjust R till the deflection is reversed.
c) If the deflections are on both sides, start sliding the jockey on the wire from end A
towards C.
d) Note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is called balance
point.
e) Note the length AD and call it as balancing length l, DC will be (100 – l). From
R l
formula,  knowing R and l, S can be found. Repeat the above procedure for
S 100  l
five different values of R.

Result :

The resistance of the given wire is, S= 2.65 Ω

Precaution:

1) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter Bridge properly.
2) All connections should be neat and tight.
3) Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.
Sources of error:
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous
current flows for some time.
3 SECTION -A .METRE BRIDGE – LAW OF COMBINATIONS IN SERIES

AIM:
To verify the laws of combination series of resistances using a metre bridge .
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Meter bridge, Leclanche cell, Galvanometer, resistance box, jockey, two resistance wires or two resistance coils, sand
paper and connecting wire.
Formula: -

Ohm

Where R – unknown resistance ( ohm )

S – Known resistance ( ohm )
L - balancing length ( meter )
PROCEDURE: (Stepwise)
1. Make the two resistance coils as r1 and r2.
2. To find r1 and r2 proceed same way as in specific resistance expt.
3. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in series as shown in circuit. In the right gap of metre bridge and find the resistance of
this combination. Take at least two sets of observations.
4. Record your observations as follows.
DIAGRAM :-
TABLE : -

Resistance s.no Resistance Length Resistance Mean

Coil of from the AB = L resistance
resistance box ( ohm )
Ohm observation Cm
(S)
Ohm

( ohm )

r 1 only 1 2 43.7
43.7
1.5
1.5
2 2 1.5

r 2 only 1 2 43.3 1.5 1.5

2 2 43.3 1.5

r 1 +r 2 1 2 60.1 3.01
3
series 2 2 60.1 3.01

CALCULATION :
3
Experimental value of Rs = ____________ ohm
3
Theoretical value of Rs = _______________ ohm [ r 1 +r 2]
Difference = Nil

RESULT:
1.Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rs are same. Hence law of resistance in
series in verified.
3
Experimental value of Rs = ____________ ohm
3
Theoretical value of Rs = _______________ ohm
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connection should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Null point should be brought between 40cm and 60cm.
4. The wire should not make a loop.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The plug may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness
4. The screw gauge may have faults like back lash error and wrong pitch.
SECTION – A 4 GALVANOMETER BY HALF - DEFLETION METHOD

Aim
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.

Apparatus
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200
Ω) resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an ammeter of
given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory

Circuit diagram
Procedure
(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

1. Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.

2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R and insert the key
K1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale.
5. Note the deflection. Let it be θ.
6. Insert the key also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S, such that
deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step 5 i.e., θ/2.
7. Note the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting S every time.
(b) Figure of merit
9. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a voltmeter by
connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter with -ve of the cell.
Let it be E.
10. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
11. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection 0 (say 30 divisions) when the circuit is
closed.
12. Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.
13. Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.
14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with different voltages like 2, 4, 6, 8,
volts from battery eliminator.
15. Find the figure of merit k using the formula.

Observations and Calculations

1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method

10,000 22 100 11
22 101.01
50,000 100 11
22 100.67
20,000 100 11
100.50

100.7 OHM
2. Table for figure of merit

4 4 10000 22 0.00032
6 6 15000 22 0.00039
8 8 20000 22 0.00039

MEAN K =0.00036 A/d iv

Number of Divisions in the Galvanometer scale n= 30

Result
100.7 Ω
1. Resistance of given galvanometer = ……..
2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer = 0.00036 A/d iv

Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit
(otherwise for small resistance an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or
ammeter can be damaged).

Sources of error

1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.
SECTION – B

05. Focal length of concave mirror

Aim: To find the value of ‘v’ for different values of ‘u’ in case of the concave mirror.

Requirements: Concave mirror, mirror holder, metre scale, lamp with object

Theory:
The focal length formula is 1 1 1
 
f v u
where f is focal length of mirror in cm,
u is object distance in cm and v is image distance in cm.
Observation:

-2
f = 20. 21 x 10 m
Procedure
Obtain the rough focal length value by focusing the image of a distant object on the
wall.
a) Mount the mirror in the mirror holder.
b) Ensure that the object and the mirror is on the straight line.
c) Keep the mirror from the object at a distance of twice the focal length of the mirror.
d) Adjust the position of the white screen till the image is obtained.
e) Measure the distance between the pole of the mirror and the object. This is the object
distance, u.
f) Measure the distance between mirror and screen.
This is the image distance, v.

h). Repeat the steps with mirror at (2f-2), (2f -4), (2f+2) and (2f+4) positions from object.

Result:The focal length of the concave mirror is

-2
1) By calculation, f= 20. 21 x 10 m
-2
2) By u-v graph, f=_ 20. x 10 m

Precautions:

a) The object and mirror must be in a straight line. Do not keep the object closer to the
rough focal length of the mirror. This will produce a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and image should be at same height and should be in level with
centre of mirror.
c) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from the image to view the image clearly.

Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.
SECTION – B 6. CONVEX LENS
AIM:

To find the focal length of a given convex lens by u, v graphical method , graphical method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Convex lens, lens stand, illuminated (light box) , white screen, Metre scale.
FORMULA:

- =
U = object distance from optical center ( m )
V = Image distance from optical center ( m )
F = focal length of given lens ( m )
RAY DIAGRAM AND MODEL GRAPH

PROCEDURE:
Determine the rough focal length by distance object method. Focus the lens to a distant object by beeping the screen
behind the lens. The image will be caught on the screen. This gives the approximate focal length of the convex lens. (f)
The lens is mounted on the stand and is placed between the light box and the screen / say between f and 2f) . Adjust the
screen to get a clear image. The distance between lens and the light box is ‘u’ and the distance between lens and the
screen is ‘V’ . The experiment is repeated for 2 reading below and 3 reading above ‘2f’ and the readings are tabulated.
CALCULATIONS UV GRAPHICAL METHOD
U-V GRAPH
A graph is drawn taking ‘u’ along X axis and ‘V’ along axis. Choosing the same scale on both the axis – points are plotted
for the different values of u and ‘v’ and a smooth curve is drown, the bisects of the angle to drawn. This will meet the
curve at a point, say C. Perpendiculars are drawn from point C and X and Y axis, the lengths of OA and OB will be the
same and equal to twice the focal length i.e. 2f. Hence ‘f’ can be calculated.

, graph method.

Another graph of 1/u along ‘x’ axis and 1/v along ‘y’ axis drawn. This straight line. The intercept of X and Y, axis gives
the inverse of focal length.

8
CALCULATIONS. Rough focal le ngt h = 16 cm
Object Inage
distance Distance
U X 10-2 m V X 10-2 m
=
−
X 10-2 m

41 27 16.27
16.27
43.5 26
16.25
46.5 25
16.19
37.5 28.5
16.11
31.5 33

16.21 x10-2 m

-2
f = 24.39 X 10 m

Result :-
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined.
24.39
1. By calculation ________________ X 10-2 m
24
2. U – V graph method ______________ X 10-2 m

PRECAUTIONS
1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of it is formed.
4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect
7. SECTION – B .GLASS PRISM
AIM:
To determine the angle of minimum derivation for a given prism by plotting a graph between the angle of incidence and
angle of deviation.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Drawing board, a write sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil half metre scale, office pins graph paper and a
protractor.
THEORY:
The minimum value of angle of deviation is called angle of minimum deviation. It is represented by the symbol Dm.

NO UNIT

Where , angle of deviation Dm

Angle of prism
DIAGRAM & MODEL GRAPH :-

PROCEDURE:
Fix a write sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins. Draw a straight line XX1 parallel to the
length of the paper nearly in the middle of the paper. Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3 on the straight line XX2. Draw normal N1,
Q1, N2, N3Q3 on the points Q1, Q2, Q3 . Draw normal N1 Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3 on the points Q1, Q2, Q3. Draw the straight lines
R1, Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3 …. Making angles of 30, 35, 40 ,,,, 60. Mark one corner of the prism is A and take it as the edge of
the prism for all the values. But the prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX1. Fix two points, two pins. P1, P2
vertically online R1Q1. The distance between the pins should be at least 10cm. Look the images of point P1 and P2 through
face AC and fix two pins P3 and P4 & Remove pins P3 and P4 and encircle their prism on the paper. Repeat the procedure
for other readings.
TABLE :

RESULT:
1 i-D graph indicates that is the angle of incidence (i) increases the angle of deviation (Dm) first decreases, attains a
minimum value (Dm) and then again starts increasing for further increase angle of incidence
2. Angle of minimum deviation Dm = _______ 40 

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 30-60
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be for than 10 cm
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Measurement of angles may be wrong
2. Pins may not be vertical
8. PN JUNCTION PIODE
AIM:
To draw the I – V characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode in forward – bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a3 volt battery, a 30 volt battery, a high resistance rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter,
one 0-30 volt voltmeter, one o – 100 m A Ammeter, one 0-100yA Ammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of
sand paper.
PROCEDURE
(a) For Forward-bias:
1. Make circuit diagram as shown in fig.
2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight
3. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (v) and milli – ammeter (mA)
4. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end and insert the key K voltmeter V and
millianmeter mA will give zero reading.
5. More the contact a little toward positive end to apply a forward-bias voltage Va of 0.1 v current remains zero.
6. Increase the forward bias. Voltage say apro 0.3v. current remain zero (It is due to junctions potential barrier of say upto
0.3 v)
7. Increase Vf say upto 0.4 v Milli – ammeter records a small current
8. Increase Vf in steps of 0.2 v and note the corresponding current. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly, till VF
becomes 2 V
9. Make VF = 2.2 V (approximately). The current will rise by large amount.
10. Make VF = 2.4 (v) (approximately) The current increases suddenly. This represent” forward breakdown” stage. Note
the current and take out the key at once
(b) For reverse – bias:
11. Make circuit diagram as shown in figure.
12. Make all connections neat, clean and tight
13. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (v) and micro-ammeter (YA)
14. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near positive end and insert the key K voltmeter v and micro
ammeter yA will give zero reading.
15. Move the contact towards negative end to apply a reverse – bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 v (approximately) a feebly
reverse current starts flowing.
16. Increase VR in steps of 0.2 V. Current Increases first slowly and then rapidly till VR Becomes 20 V. Not the current
17. Make VR = 25 V (approximately) the current Increases suddenly. This represents “reverse breakdown” stage. Note the
current and take out the key at once.
18. Record your observations as given ahead.
(a) For Forward-bias: Circuit Diagram

Model graph : -

(b) For reverse – bias: Circuit Diagram

Model graph : -
–

CALCULATION
–

RESULT:
I) The Forward bias are
a) Static resistance of a given diode = 
b) Dynamic resistance of a given diode = 
ii) Reverse bias is
a) Resistance of a given diode = 
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used in circuit and of ened when the circuit is not being med.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied
4. Reverse – bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied
SOURCE OF ERROR:
The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
SECTION – A

Activity – 1

Aim
To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current (AC) and check continuity of a given circuit using
multimeter.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus. Three carbon resistors, one standard resistance coil, a battery eliminator with tapping
(2 V, 4 V and 6 V), a step down transformer (6-0-6 V) with two tapping (2 V and 4 V), a resistor of
100 ohm, a plug key and multimeter.

Theory
Multimeter. It is a single measuring device acting as an Ammeter, a Voltmeter and an Ohmmeter.
For this reason, it is also called AVO meter.
It can measure alternating as well as direct current and alternating as well as direct voltage in
addition to resistance. For this purpose its panel is divided into five different sections. There are
many ranges in each section so that it can measure from micro (10-6) to mega (106) units. Rotation
of a knob changes the section and the range in one section.

- Rotation of knob for change in ammeter range, brings shunt resistances of different values in
circuit in parallel with the coil.
— Rotation of knob for change in voltmeter range, brings series resistances of different values in
circuit in series with the coil.
— Rotation of knob for change in ohmmeter range, brings different resistances in circuit in series
with the multimeter cell.

1. Carbon resistors are frequently used in electrical and electronic circuits and their values vary
over a very wide range. A colour code is used to indicate the value of the resistance.

2. A carbon resistance has four different concentric coloured ringe or bands on its surface. The
first three bands a, b and c determine the value of the resistance and the fourth band d gives
the percentage of accuracy called tolerance. The resistance of carbon resistor R = (ab x
10c ± T %) Ω.
3. To read the value of carbon resistance, the following sentence is found to be of much more
helpful.
4. The following table provides the colour code for the carbon resistors :

(b) D.C. Voltage

1. Select a D.C. source of potential difference, 6 V battery eliminator or a battery.

2. Plug the probes black in com and red in +.
3. Select D.C. volt, by turning the selector switch to range 10 V D.C. volts,
4. Touch and press other ends of probes such that red is on battery terminal marked + and
black on and not the reading.
5. Insert red probe in terminals marked 4 V, 2 V in succession and note readings.
(c) A.C. Volts

1. Turn the selector A.C. (200 Volt).

2. Touch and press the probes other ends to two terminals of A.C. source of potential
drop and note the reading.
3. Use red probe in terminals 4 V and 2 V in succession and record the reading.
Precautions
1. Instructions for handling the multimeter should be gone through thoroughly as it is a very
handy instrument and is likely to get damaged if carelessly or ignorantly used.
2. Select the appropriate parameter current, voltage or resistance to the measured and set it on
appropriate range.
RESULT:

The resistance, voltage and current are measured by using multimeter.

Activity – 2

Aim
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches,a fuse and a
power source.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: No apparatus required in assembling a circuit.
Material: Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply (battery .
eliminator), three (on/off) switches flexible connecting wire with red and black plastic covering,a
fuse wire.
Supplementary: Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory
Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The household circuit, all
appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The switches are connected in series with each
appliances in live wire. 5 A switches are required for normal appliances like, bulbs, fluorescent
tubes fans etc. 15 A sockets and switches are required for heavy load appliances ‘ like,
refrigerator, air conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances must have three wires called live,
neutral and the earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..
where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.
To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of little higher
rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by all appliances. For further safety, a
suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is connected in series with supply source.
Diagram

Procedure

1. Connect the bulbs B1, B2 and B3 in series with switches S1, S2 and S3 respectively and
connect each set of B-S in parallel with each other.
2. Connect main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get required voltage
from 0 to 10 V (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 V).
3. Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the power supply (battery eliminator).
4. Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the B-S set.
5. Connect one end of power supply to one end of B-S set.
6. Check the circuit one again to ensure that household circuit is complete.
7. Gradually increase the current to 0.75 A, the fuse must bum off at about 0.6 A.

RESULT :

The given household circuit is assembled properly.

Activity – 3
Aim
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one way key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

Diagram

Procedure

1. Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as shown in
diagram and then in series with the battery.
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit, to measure the current.
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential difference.
Aim 4. Connect the switch in series with the battery.
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete.

Result :
The components of a given electrical circuit is assembled properly.
ACTIVITY –4
DATE:
AIM: To identify a diode, a LED, a resistor and a capacitor from mixed collection
of such items.
APPARATUS: A mixed collection of electronic components such as diodes, light
emitting diodes (LED s), resistors, capacitors and a multimeter.
PRINCIPLE:
Diode: A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward biased. It does
not emit light while conducting.
Light emitting diode (LED): An LED is also a two-terminal device. It conducts
when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light
while conducting.
Resistor: A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts when operated with ac as
well as dc voltage.
Capacitor: A capacitor is a two-terminal device. It does not conduct with dc
voltage.
PROCEDURE:
1. Check the physical appearance of the component.
2. If the component has two terminals, it could be a resistor, a capacitor, a
diode or LED.
3. Look for colour bands, if it has a typical set of three colour bands followed
by a silver or gold band, the component is a resistor.
4. Connect the multimeter terminals to the component terminals and watch for
multimeter deflection keeping the multimeter knob in resistance mode.
5. If the multimeter shows a deflection, the component could be a resistor, a
diode or LED.
6. If the deflection is accompanied with emission of light, the component is an
LED.
7. If no light is emitted then interchange the multimeter terminals connected to
the component.
8. If the component still gives deflection in a multimeter, then the component is
a resistor.
9. If the pointer of the multimeter shows deflection when its terminals are
connected across the component in one direction and does not show
deflection when the terminal, of the multimeter in opposite direction and
also there is no emission of light, then the component is a diode.
10. If the multimeter does not show any deflection on connecting its terminals
either wat to component, then it is a capacitor.

RESULT: A diode, an LED. a resistor and a capacitor are identified from a mixed
collection.
Activity – 5
Aim : To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

Apparatus
Two razor blades, adhesive tapes, a screen a source of monochromatic light (laser pencil) black paper and
a glass plate.

Theory
Diffraction is a phenomenon of bending of light around the comers or edges of a fine opening or aperture.
Diffraction takes place when order of wavelength is comparable or small to the size of slit or aperture. The
diffraction effect is more pronounced if the size of the aperture or the obstacle is of the order of wavelength
of the waves. The diffraction pattern arises due to interference of light waves from different symmetrical
point of the same wavefront. The diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a central bright band
having alternate dark and weak bright bands of decreasing intensity on both sides.

Procedure

1. Fix the black paper on the glass plate by using adhesive.

2. Place two razor blades so that their sharp edges are parallel and extremely close to each
other to form a narrow slit in between.

3. Cut the small slit in between the sharp edges of blades and place at a suitable distance from
a wall or screen of a dark room.
4. Throw a beam of light on the slit by the laser pencil.
Conclusion
When light waves are incident on a slit or aperture then it bends away (spread) at the comers of
slit showing the phenomena of diffraction of light.

Precaution

1. Air gaps should not be left between glass plates and black paper.
2. The razor blades should be placed extremely closed as possible.
3. Diffraction pattern should be seen on a wall of a dark room.
4. A point source of monochromatic light like laser torch should be used
5. A diffraction pattern of alternate bright and dark bands is seen on the wall.

RESULT :
The diffraction of light due to a thin slit is observed.
ACTIVITY – 6
DATE:
AIM: To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two
lenses from a given set of lenses.
APPARATUS: convex lenses of known focal length, scale and screen.
1 1 1
FORMULA = 𝑓1 + 𝑓2
𝑓

RAY DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:
i) Focus the lens 1 and lens II towards the distance object separately.
ii)Adjust the screen to get the clear image on the screen.
iii)
Measure the distance between lens I and screen gives f 1 and similarly for
lens II (f2).
iv) Tie both the lenses and find the focal length of combination by the same
method (f).
1 1 1
CONCLUSION: By calculation = +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
f 1 = 10 cm ( convex lens )
f 2 = 10 cm ( convex lens )
f = 5 cm
From experiment f = 5 cm

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO. f 1 x 10-2 m f 2 x 10-2 m f x 10-2m f (from

experiment)
x 10-2m

10 cm ( convex lens ) 10 cm ( convex lens ) f = 5 cm f = 5 cm

RESULT :
The obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses
from a given set of lenses is _____________
f = 5 cm