THE INDIAN PUBLIC SCHOOL

ERODE.
XII-Physics Practical (Code - 042)

Physics
Lab manual (2023-24)
LHS

Circuit diagram:
1. Meter Bridge-Determination of Unknown resistance of a wire RHS

Aim: To find the resistance of the given wire using meter bridge

Requirements:Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, resistance box, Battery Eliminator,
jockey, unknown resistance wire, connecting wires.

Formula used:
100−𝑙
Resistance Of the wire, S=R ( )Ω
𝑙

Term explanation:

S  Unknown resistance of the given wire in ohm

R Resistance included in the standard resistance box in ohm

l Balancing length for S in cm

(100-l) Balancing length for R in cm

Theory:

Wheatstone’s bridge: A meter bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone’s bridge

P R
experiment as shown in figure. If there is no deflection in the galvanometer, then  which
Q S
is the condition of balance of bridge. According to the circuit diagram here,
𝑃 𝑆
ss = , We use this relation to find the unknown resistance S of the given material of wire.
𝑄 𝑅

The wire whose resistance is to be found is connected in the arm AB. A resistance box
from which a known resistance can be taken out is connected across the gap BC. A sensitive
galvanometer followed by a jockey is connected between the points B and D so as to slide
over the wire AD. A cell with a key K1 is connected across AC.
Observation: LHS

(i)To find the unknown resistance of the given wire:

Value of Resistance
Balancing of the wire,
known
S.NO length, l (100-l) 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
resistance, R S=R ( )
(cm) (cm) 𝒍
(Ω) Ω
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean, S= Ω
Procedure: RHS

a) Make the connections as shown in figure. Take out suitable resistance R from the
resistance box.
b) Touch the jockey at point A; see that there is deflection on galvanometer on one side.
Touch the jockey now on the point C of the wire. The deflection in galvanometer should
be on the other side. If it is so, connections are correct. If the deflection is one-sided,
adjust R till the deflection is reversed.
c) If the deflections are on both sides, start sliding the jockey on the wire from end A
towards C.
d) Note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is called balance
point. Note the length AD and call it as balancing length l, DC will be (100 – l). From
100−𝑙
formula, S=R ( )
𝑙
e) knowing R and l, S can be found. Repeat the above procedure for five different values
of R.

Result :

The resistance of the given wire is _________ Ω

Precaution:

1) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter Bridge properly.
2) All connections should be neat and tight.
3) Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.
4) Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact
for a long time.
5) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of Meter Bridge.
Calculation: LHS
Sources of error: RHS
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current
flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper strips
and connecting screws
Circuit diagram: LHS
2. Meter bridge-Combination of resistances(Series) RHS

Aim:

To verify the law of combination (series) of resistances using a meter bridge.

Requirements:

Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, a resistance box, Lechlanche cell(or)
battery eliminator of 2V, jockey, two unknown resistance wires and connecting wires.

Formula used:
100−𝑙
1. Resistance Of the material of the wire-1,R1=S ( )Ω
𝑙

100−𝑙
2. Resistance Of thematerial of the wire-2, R2=S ( )Ω
𝑙

100−𝑙
3. Effective Resistance Of material of the wire-1and wire-2 in series, Rs=S ( )Ω
𝑙

Term explanation:

R1,R2 and Rs Unknown resistances of given wires in ohm

S Resistance included in the standard resistance box in ohm

l Balancing length for R1,R2 and Rs in cm

(100-l) Balancing length for S in cm

Theory:
In series arrangement, the resistors are connected end to end. The source of current is
connected between the free ends of the first and the last resistor. In this arrangement, the
current through each resistor is the same but potential difference across different resistors is
different. The potential difference of the source is distributed across different resistors. Let
I be the current through each resistor of resistance R 1, R2, R3 and V1, V2, V3 the potential
difference across each, then V = V1+V2+V3, where V1 = IR1,
V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3.
So, V = I RS, where RS is the effective resistance of the combination.
IRS = IR1+IR2+IR3

RS = R1+R2+R3.

For R1 and R2 resistors, RS = R1+R2

LHS

Observations:
(i) resistance for the material of the wire1, R1:

Value of Resistance
Balancing Of the wire,
known
S.No length, l (100-l) 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
resistance, S R1=S( )
cm cm 𝒍
Ω Ω
1. 1
2. 2
Mean (R1) = Ω
(ii) resistance for the material of the wire2, R 2:

Resistance
Value of known Balancing of the wire,
S.No resistance ,S length, l (100-l) 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
R2=S( )
Ω cm cm 𝒍
Ω

1. 1
2. 2
Mean(R2)= Ω
(iii) resistance in series, Rs:

Value of Balancing Resistance

S.No known length, l (100-l) Of the wire,
resistance, S 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
Rs=S( )
𝒍
Ω cm cm
Ω
1. 1
2. 2
Mean(Rs)= Ω
Procedure: RHS
a)Measure the unknown resistances R1 and R2 using meter bridge experiment.
b) Connect two resistances R1 and R2 in series.
c)Check for deflection on both sides by touching the jockey at both ends of meter bridge
wire.
d)Proceed in the same way as in meter bridge experiment. Take atleast two sets of
observations.
e)Compare the measured values of effective resistances using meter bridge with calculated
values.
Verification:
By theory, Effective resistance in series, RS = R1 + R2 = ________ Ω
By experiment, Effective resistance in series, RS = ________ Ω

Precautions:

1)Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of meter bridge properly.

2)All connections should be neat and tight.

3)Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.

4)Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact for
a long time.

5)Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of meter bridge.

Calculation: LHS
Sources of error: RHS

1. There may be error due to contact resistances.

2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current
flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper strips
and connecting screws.
Circuit diagram: LHS
3. Resistance and Figure of merit of galvanometer RHS

Aim:To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.

Requirements: Galvanometer, battery, two resistance boxes, one way key(two numbers) and
connecting wires.

Formula used:

1. G  RS
RS Ω
E
2. k 
( R  G)
A/divisions
Term explanation:

G  Galvanometer Resistance in ohm

R High Resistance in ohm
S Shunt resistance in ohm
k  Figure of merit of the Galvanometer ampere/divisions
E emf applied in volt
θ  deflection in Galvanometer.

Theory: A galvanometer is a device used to detect small current in a circuit. It has a coil
pivoted in a radial magnetic field. When electric current is passed through the coil, it gets
deflected. Its deflection is noted by attaching a pointer to the coil. The deflection is
proportional to current passed. A galvanometer has a moderate resistance and has a small
current carrying capacity.
The resistance of a galvanometer can be found by half deflection method. The circuit is
shown for this method. Key K is inserted and deflection θ is determined with a suitable value
of R. If E is the emf of cell and I be the current in circuit, the galvanometer resistance,
RS
G
RS
Figure of merit of galvanometer:
It is defined as current required for producing deflection of 1 division. It is measured in
ampere/div. When a high resistance R is taken out from resistance box, a current I flows in the
circuit and it produces a deflection θ.
Observation: LHS

Figure of
Resistance Deflection in Shunt Galvanometer Merit,
𝑬
R Galvanometer θ/2 S Resistance k=(𝑹+𝑮)𝜽
S.No G
(Ω) θ (divisions) (divisions) (Ω) (Ω) (A/divisions)

1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean (G) = Ω

Mean (K) = A/division

RHS

E
I 
E
=k θ. Therefore, k 
RG ( R  G)

By varying R and noting corresponding value of θ, we can find a set of values of figure of
merit. The mean of these values gives the figure of merit of the galvanometer(k).

Procedure:

a) Make the connections as shown.

b) See that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
c) Introduce a resistance of 5000 from the resistance box R and then insert the K1 only.
d) Adjust the value of R so that the deflection in the galvanometer is maximum(say 30 div)
e) Note the deflection. Let it be θ i.e., θ = 30 div.
f) Now, insert the key K2. Without changing the value of R, adjust the value of k, such
that deflection in galvanometer reduces exactly to half the value obtained. i.e., θ / 2.
g) Note the value of R.
h) Repeat the above steps for various values of R.
LHS

Calculation:
RHS

Result:

1). The resistance of galvanometer is found to be ______ Ω.

2). Figure of merit of galvanometer is ___________ A/division.

Precautions:

a)All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

b)Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are tight.

c)Initially a high resistance from the resistance box should be introduced or else a small
resistance can damage the galvanometer.

Sources of error:

1. The emf of the battery may change during the experiment.

2. Calibration of resistance in resistance boxes may not be correct.
3. Plugs in resistance boxes may not be tight and nay have contact resistance.
Circuit diagram: LHS
4. Frequency of AC mains with a sonometer RHS

Aim : To find the frequency of the ac mains using a sonometer and an electromagnet.

Apparatus required: Sonometer having a soft iron core, an electromagnet, a step down
transformer, hanger with 1 kg slotted weights, meter scale, stand for electromagnet, weighing
2
machine.

Formula used:

1 T
Frequency of ac mains using a sonometer, fAC = Hz.
4l m

Term explanation:

l = resonating length, in metre,

T = Tension in the string, in newton and
m = linear mass density of the wire (i.e., mass per unit length of wire)
m = M kg m-1 where M = mass of the wire in kg, L = length of the wire in m.
L
Theory:
Frequency of ac is defined as the number of ac cycles per second, f AC.

An electromagnet is made by passing electric current in a coil wound around a piece of soft
iron. This is nothing but a current carrying solenoid with soft iron as its core. The core
acquires magnetic properties on passing electric current through the solenoid and loses
magnetism on switching off.

If AC of frequency fAC is passed through this electromagnet, the polarity of the ends of
electromagnet changes (N pole to S pole or vice versa) once in every cycle of AC. If the
electromagnet is held close to the string of a sonometer wire, near its centre, the string will be
attracted towards it when the electromagnet is magnetized and thrown away when it is
demagnetized. Thus the sonometer wire will vibrate under the electromagnet. As the string
will be attracted by electromagnet whether there is a north pole or south pole on its near end,
the frequency of vibration of string ( ν )will be twice the frequency of the ac fed to
electromagnet( ν = 2 fAC )

1 T 1 T
So, 2 fAC = ν = Hz. Therefore, fAC = Hz.
2l m 4l m
Observation: LHS

Length of the sonometer wire, L = 1.50 m

Mass of sonometer wire, M =2.544 x 10-3Kg

Mass per unit length of sonometer wire (i.e., linear mass density).

m = M = 0.00169 Kg/m
L

Frequency of ac
Mass of
Tension mains
hanger and Resonating
T=Mg
weights length,l
S.No 1 T
M fac=
4l m
(x 10-2 m)
(N)
(Kg)
(Hz)

1. 1.5 15
2. 2.0 20
3. 2.5 25

Mean, fac=__________Hz.
Procedure: RHS

1. Check if pulley is frictionless.

2. Place sonometer parallel to one edge of the working table, such that, the pulley remains
projected out of the perpendicular edge. See that there are no kinks in the string of
sonometer and its one end is rigidly fixed. Pass string over pulley such that it stretches
horizontally over the box of sonometer and attach a hanger of 1 kg weight on its free
2
end.
3. Connect the electromagnet to the secondary of step down transformer and plug primary
of the transformer in ac mains. Hold the electromagnet in a stand and bring it close to
the sonometer wire just above the centre of its length.
4. Switch on the mains and adjust the wedges on the sonometer, starting from minimum
separation till you get maximum amplitude of oscillation of the sonometer wire.
At this resonance condition, rider flies off. Note the length of the sonometer wire
between the wedges and also note the load suspended on the string.
5. Increase the load on the hanger in steps of 1 kg weight and measure the resonating
2
length. Take atleast 3 observations with three loads 1.5kg, 2kg and 2.5kg.
6. Switch off ac supply and take out sonometer wire. Measure its mass M and length L.
Then find its linear mass density m = M kg m-1
L
Calculation: LHS
Result: RHS

The frequency of ac mains by using the sonometer is =_______Hz.

Precautions:

1) Sonometer wire should be horizontal and free of kinks.

2) Magnet should remain in the middle of vibrating segment and close to wire.

3) Resonance position should be noted when wire has maximum amplitude of

Oscillation

Sources of Error:

1) Slotted weights may not have fixed value.

2) Pulley may not be frictionless.
3) Sonometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section
Ray diagram: LHS
05. Focal length of concave mirror RHS

Aim:To find the value of image distance ‘v’ for different values of object distance ‘u’ in case
of the concave mirror and also to determine the focal length of the concave mirror.

Requirements:Concave mirror, mirror holder, meter scale, lamp with object

Formula used:
𝑢𝑣
𝑓= cm
(𝑢+𝑣)

Term explanation:

f  focal length of the concave mirror in cm

u  object distance cm

v  image distance cm

Theory: When a beam of light parallel to the principal axis falls on concave mirror, it reflects
the beam which passes through the focus. The nature and size of the image depends on where
the object is placed in front of the concave mirror.

The focal length formula is 1 1 1 where f is focal length of mirror in cm, u

 
f v u
is object distance in cm and v is image distance in cm.

Procedure:

Obtain the rough focal length value by focusing the image of a distant object on the
wall.
a) Mount the mirror in the mirror holder.
b) Ensure that the object and the mirror is on the straight line.
c) Keep the mirror from the object at a distance of twice the focal length of the mirror.
d) Adjust the position of the white screen till the image is obtained.
e) Measure the distance between the pole of the mirror and the object. This is the object
distance, u.
f) Measure the distance between mirror and screen.
This is the image distance, v.

h). Repeat the steps with mirror at (2f-2), (2f -4), (2f+2) and (2f+4) positions from object.
Observation: LHS

Rough focal length of the given concave mirror = cm

Focal length,f
Object Image 𝒖𝒗
Mirror
S.No distance, u distance, v 𝒇=
position (𝒖 + 𝒗)
(cm) (cm)
(cm)
1. 2f-4
2.
2f-2
3.
2f
4.
2f+2
5.
2f+4

Mean, f= cm
RHS

Result: The focal length of the concave mirror f =______ cm.

Precautions:

a) The object and mirror must be in a straight line. Do not keep the object closer to the
rough focal length of the mirror. This will produce a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and image should be at same height and should be in level with centre
of mirror.
c) Keep your eye at least 30cm away from the image to view the image clearly.
Calculation: LHS
Sources of error: RHS

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.
Ray diagram: LHS

Model graph:
06. Focal length of convex lens RHS

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v

Requirements:Convex lens, lens holder, metre scale, white screen, lamp with object.

Formula used:

1. For calculation:
𝑢𝑣
𝑓= cm
(𝑢−𝑣)
2. For u-v graph:
|𝒖𝟎 |+𝒗𝟎
𝒇=( ) cm
𝟒

Term explanation:

f  focal length of the convex lens in cm

u  object distance in cm

v  image distance in cm

u0, v0  perpendiculardrawn to the u, v axes in u-v graph in cm

Theory:

When a ray of light, parallel to principal axis is incident on a convex lens, after refraction, it
passes through focus. Another ray which passes through optical center goes straight and these
refracted rays meet and produce real inverted images. The nature and size of image depends
on position of object.

Focal length formula is 1 1 1 where u is object distance in cm, v is image distance

 
f v u

in cm and focal length of lens in cm.

32
Observation: LHS

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm

Object Image Focal length,

𝒖𝒗
distance, u distance, v f=
S.No Lens position (𝒖−𝒗)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1. 2f-4
2.
2f-2
3.
2f
4.
2f+2
5.
2f+4

Mean (f) = cm.

Procedure: RHS

a) Obtain rough focal length of given convex lens by focusing the image of a distant object
on the wall.
b) Mount the given lens on the lens holder and place at 2f distance from the object.
c) Place white screen behind the lens.
d) Move the screen forward and backward so that the image of the object is obtained.
e) Note the position of the object, image and the lens.
f) The distance between the object and the lens is u and the distance between the image
and the lens is v.
g) Repeat the above steps with lens at (2f-4),(2f-2), (2f+2) and (2f+4) positions from the
object.

Result:

The focal length (f) of given convex lens

1) By calculation, f=_____ cm
2) By u-v graph, f=_____ cm

Precautions:

a) Do not place the object closer than the rough focal length of the lens. This will produce
a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and the image should be at same height and should correspond with
center of curvature.
c) Keep your eye at least 30cm away from image to view the image clearly.
Calculation: LHS
Sources of error: RHS

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.
LHS

Ray diagram:

Model graph:
07. Refractive index of a glass prism RHS

Aim:To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between the angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Requirements:Prism, drawing board, pins, white paper.

Theory:A prism is a refracting medium bounded by intersecting plane surfaces that both
disperse and deviate light. The two plane surfaces meet along an edge at a certain angle. These
planes are called the refracting edge and the angle is called the angle of prism or refracting
angle. A prism may be bound by any number of surfaces but the surface on which light is
incident and the surface from which light emerges must be plane and non-parallel.

r1  r2  QOS  2rtS ……….(1)

A  QOS  2rtS ……………(2)

From (1) and (2),

A  r1  r2 . i.e., A = r1+r2 and D = i + e – A

sin i
Refractive index , n  ……….(3)
sin r1

When incident light ray suffers minimum deviation,

i = e , r1 = r2 =r………..(4)

A = 2r , r = A/2………..(5)

i = (A+Dm) / 2………..(6)
A  Dm
sin( )
Substitute (6) and (5) in (3), we get n  2
A
sin( )
2

Angle of minimum deviation(Dm): It is the minimum value of angle of deviation at which the
light ray after refraction from the first refracting face goes parallel to the base of the prism,
before it emerges from the second refracting face.
Observation: LHS

S.No Angle of incidence, i Angle of deviation, D

1. 30º
2. 35º
3. 40º
4. 45º
5. 50º
6. 55º
7. 60º
Procedure: RHS

a) Fix white paper on a drawing board with the help of thumb pins.
b) Draw a line through the center of paper longitudinally.
c) Keep the triangular face of the prism with one of the edge on the line and draw the
boundary of the prism with the help of a sharp pencil.
d) Draw normal N on the sides AB at Q1.
e) Draw straight lines R1Q1 making an angle of 30 ̊ with the normal.
f) Fix two paper pins P1 and P2 on line R1Q1. Keep the pins at maximum distance away
from each other (atleast 5cm).
g) Place the prism back on the mark ABC. Look for the image of the pins P1 and P2
through the face AC.
h) Take the third pin P3, close your left eye and fix the pin P3 at such a position that the
image of pins P1, P2 and P3 be on the same line.
i) Now take the fourth pin P4, again close your left eye and fix them at such a position
such that pins P1, P2 , P3and P4 are on the same line. Remove the pins from their
positions and encircle the points. Draw lines through P1, P2 , P3and P4.
j) Produce the emergent ray backward and incident ray forward to meet at E. Measure the
angle of deviation at D.
k) Repeat all the above steps for angles 35 ,̊ 40 ̊, 45 ,̊ 50̊, 55̊ and 60̊. Do not take i< 30 ̊ to
avoid TIR.
l) Plot the graph i versus D with D on Y-axis and i on the X-axis.
Calculation:
Draw the graph between i and D with D on Y-axis and i on the X-axis. Find the
minimum angle of deviation by drawing a straight perpendicular line from the point of
the graph to the Y-axis called the angle Dm.

Result:

1). The i-d graph is U-shaped indicating that as the angle of incidence increases,
angle of deviation first decreases and then increases.
2). Angle of minimum deviation Dm = _____

Precaution:

1) Angle of deviation should not be less than 30 ̊ or more than 60̊.

2) The pins fixed should be well apart (atleast 8cm away) and should be vertical.
3) The prism should not be changed while doing the experiment.
LHS

Note: There is no calculation part for this experiment

Sources of error: RHS

1. The pins may not be exactly vertical.

2. Angles may not be measured properly
3. The tips of the pins may not be on the same line.
Circuit diagram: LHS

Model graph:
08. PN Junction diode RHS

Aim: To study the I-V characteristics curve of a p-n junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias.
Requirements: A p-n junction diode, a battery, a high resistance rheostat, voltmeter,
milliammeter, one way key and connecting wires.
Theory:A p-n junction is a semiconductor device obtained by putting in contact a p-type
semiconductor with an n-type semiconductor. The one-piece device so obtained is also
called a junction diode. A junction diode is based on two different ways.
Forward biasing: In forward biasing, the p-type of crystal is connected to the +ve of the
bias battery and n-type to the –ve of the battery. In forward biasing, current increases as the
forward bias are increased. The current increases slowly in the beginning and then sharply.
The forward current flows only if the initial forward voltage is greater than a certain
minimum voltage. This is represented by the knee voltage or cut-in voltage.
Reverse biasing: A p-n junction is said to reverse biasing if the p-type crystal is connected
to –ve terminal and n-type is connected to +ve terminal of the bias battery.
Now a very small current (µA) flows due to minority carriers. This current is called
saturation current because it is found to be independent off reverse bias. At a certain reverse
voltage the current suddenly increases the breaking of the covalent bonds. This reverse
voltage is called the reverse breakdown voltage.

Procedure:

Forward biasing:

1). Make the connections as shown.

2). Keep the moving contact of the rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter
and milliammeter will show a zero reading.
3). Move the contact towards the positive of the battery to apply the forward bias voltage. V F
= 0.1V. The current remains zero.
4). Increase the forward bias voltage in steps. The current will still be zero. This is due to
junction potential barrier.
5). Increase VF in steps and note the corresponding milliammeter and voltmeter readings.
6) At VF = 0.4V, the current increases suddenly. This represents the forward bias cut-in
voltage.
7) Draw a graph between I and V, by taking V along X-axis and I along Y-axis.
Observations: LHS

Least count of Voltmeter (for forward Bias) = V

Least count of Voltmeter (for Reverse Bias) = V
Least count of milliammeter = mA
Least count of microammeter = µA
(ii)Forward bias:

Milli ammeter
S.No Voltmeter Reading (V)
Reading(mA)

(ii)Reverse bias:

Micro ammeter
S.No Voltmeter Reading (V)
Reading (µA)
Reverse biasing: RHS

For plotting reverse I-V characteristics the circuit is modified as shown. The voltmeter as
before is connected across the p-n junction. The milliammeter is replaced by microammeter as
shown.

Procedure:Same as in forward bias. The microammeter readings are noted corresponding to

different voltmeter readings. A graph between V and I is plotted by taking V along –X axis
and I along –Y axis.

Precautions:

1). Measuring instruments must be of proper range.

2) Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
3) Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not in use.
4) Avoid applying forward bias voltage beyond breakdown.
Sources of error:

1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose.

2. Each time the pointer of ammeter (milli or micro)may not be on a scale mark.
3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.

Note: There is no calculation part for this experiment

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ACTIVITIES-(2022-2023)
Section-A: (RHS)

Activity-1
(LHS)
(RHS)
(LHS)
Observations:

Least count of ammeter = 0.02A; Range=2.00A

Least count of voltmeter =0.05V; Range=3.00V

Ammeter Length of the Voltmeter

V/L
S.No reading wire L reading
(V/cm)
(A) (cm) (V)

1. 0.54 40.0 1.25 0.03

2. 0.54 60.0 1.35 0.02

3. 0.54 80.0 1.45 0.02

4. 0.54 100.0 1.55 0.02

(RHS)

Activity-2:
(LHS)
scale:

On X-axis the value of 1 smallest square division = 2 cm

On Y-axis the value of 1 smallest square division = 0.01V

(RHS)
(LHS)
(RHS)

Activity-3:

(LHS)
(RHS)

Result:
The diagrams comprising the electrical circuit components mentioned above are drawn
and the relevant positions for the Voltmeter and the Ammeter are also checked and
connected.

58
ACTIVITY-4:
ACTIVITY-5:

To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens, on a screen
by using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens).
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT
To draw the images of an object formed by a convex lens when placed at various positions.
MATERIALS AND APPARATUS REQUIRED
A drawing board, sheets of white paper, measuring scale, protractor and adhesive tape or drawing
pins.
PROCEDURE
1. Take a drawing board and fix a white sheet of paper on it using drawing pins. Draw a thin line in the
middle of the white sheet using a sharp pencil. Mark a point O at the centre of this line. Draw a
convex lens at O. Let O be the optical centre of the lens. Mark points F 1 and F2 on both sides of the
lens such that OF1=OF2. Also mark points 2 F1 and 2 F2 on the line distances 2 OF1 and 2 OF2
respectively.
2. Draw object AB of height h, shown to be placed at infinity as shown in Fig. 7.3 (a).
3. Draw incident ray coming from the object AB parallel to principal axis F1OF2, striking the surface of
the lens L at the points of incidence P and Q, etc. After refraction through the lens, these rays emerge
as refracted rays PF2, QF2 and so on. These parallel rays intersect at the focus F2 on the side of the
lens. A diminished image is formed at F2 as shown in Fig. 7.3(a).
4. Repeat the above steps. Draw neat ray diagrams for each position of the object, as given in Fig. 7.3
[(b)-(f)]
5. Measure height of the object AB (h) and its image A ‘B’(h’) in each case. Record the measurement
in the observation table.
RESULT
 When the object is placed anywhere between F and infinity, the image formed by convex lens is real
and inverted but the image is not obtained on the screen when the object is placed between the focus
and the lens.
 The size of the image depends on the distance of the object from the lens.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Distant of the Position of the Nature of Size of the Size of the
S.No
Object image the image object (b) image (h)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
ACTIVITY-6:
Note: The methodology for writing the record.

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