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Random Sampling
• The topics of random sampling and probability are central to the methodology of
inferential statistics. Therefore, the basic principles of probability will be explored
in this chapter.
Probability & Counting Rules
• To generalize validly from the sample to the population, both in hypothesis
MATH 2031: Probability and Statistics testing and in parameter estimation experiments, the sample cannot be just any
Temple University, Japan Campus subset of the population. Rather, it is crucial that the sample is a random sample.

• A random sample is defined as a s ample selected from the population by a

process that ensures that (1) each possible sample of a given size has an equal
chance of being selected and (2) all the members of the population have an equal
chance of being selected into the sample.

1 2

Random Sampling Probability and Counting Rules

• To illustrate random sampling, consider the situation in which we have a population • A probability experiment is a chance process that leads to well-defined results called
comprising the scores 4, 5, and 6. outcomes.
• Let’s assume we shall be sampling from the population one score at a time and then • An outcome is the result of a single trial of a probability experiment.
placing it back into the population before drawing again. This is called sampling with • A sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment.
replacement.
• There are 9 samples of size 2 that we might get when sampling one score at a time with Experiment Sample Space
replacement. Toss one coin Head, tail
4, 5 4, 6 5, 6 Roll a die 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Answer a true/false question True, false
5, 4 5, 5 5, 6
Toss two coins HH, TT, HT, TH
6, 4 6, 5 6, 6
• To achieve random sampling, the process must be such that (1) all of the 9 possible
• It is necessary to distinguish between an outcome and an event: An event consists of a set of
samples have an equally likely chance of being selected and (2) all of the population outcomes of a probability experiment
scores (4, 5, and 6) have an equal chance of being selected into the sample.

3 4

Problem – Sample Space

1) Rolling Dice: Find the sample space for rolling two dice.

2) Drawing Cards: Find the sample space for drawing one card from an ordinary deck of
cards.

3) Boy or Girl: Find the sample space for a family with three children. Use B for boy and
G for girl.

4) Tossing Coins: Draw a tree diagram and determine the sample space for tossing four
coins.

5) Coin & Die: A coin and a die are tossed together onto a table. What is the sample
space for this experiment?

5 6

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Standard Deck of Cards Tree Diagram

Hearts Diamonds Spades Clubs
• A tree diagram, a device
consisting of line segments,
is used to determine all
possible outcomes of a
probability experiment.

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Tree Diagram
Problem – Sample Space
• A tree diagram, a device
consisting of line segments, • Tossing Coins Draw a tree diagram and determine the sample space
is used to determine all for tossing four coins.
possible outcomes of a
probability experiment.

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Simple vs. Compound Events

Problem – First-Year College Courses
• An event can be one outcome or more than one outcome.

• First-year students at a college must take one English class, one class in • An event with one outcome is called a simple event.
mathematics, a first-year seminar, and an elective. There are 2 English
classes to choose from, 3 mathematics classes, 5 electives, and everyone • A compound event consists of two or more outcomes or simple events.
takes the same first-year seminar.
• Represent the possible schedules using a tree diagram. • For example, if a die is rolled and a “5” shows, this result is called an outcome, since it is a
result of a single trial.

• The event of getting a “5” when a die is rolled is a a simple event.

• The event of getting an odd number when a die is rolled is called a compound event since it
consists of three outcomes or three simple events.

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Classical Probability

There are two basic interpretations of probability: • Classical probability uses sample spaces to determine the numerical
probability that an event will happen. You do not actually have to
perform the experiment to determine that probability.
1) Classical Probability
• Classical probability assumes that all outcomes in the sample space are
2) Empirical Probability equally likely to occur.

• For example, when a single die is rolled, each outcome has the same
probability of occurring. Since there are six outcomes, each outcome
has a probability of 1/6.

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Formula for Classical Probability Problem – Classical Probability

• Equally likely events are events that have the same probability of occurring.
• The probability of any event E: 1) Tossing a coin: What is the probability of getting a head when a coin is tossed?

Number of Outcomes in E 2) Drawing cards: Find the probability of getting a black 6 when one card is
PE =
Total Number of Outcomes in the Sample Space randomly selected from an ordinary deck.

• This probability is denoted by 3) A family with 3 children: If a family has three children, find the probability that
n(E) exactly two of the three children are boys.
PE =
n(S)

where n(E) is the number of outcomes in E and n(S) is the number of outcomes in
the sample space S.

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Problem – Drawing Cards

• A card is drawn from an ordinary deck. Find the probability of getting:
a) A heart
b) A black card
c) The 8 of diamonds
d) A queen
e) A face card

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Probability Rules Problem – Rolling a Die

• The probability of any event E is a number (either a fraction or decimal)
between and including 0 and 1. This is denoted by 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1. • When a single die is rolled,
a) what is the probability of getting a “5”?
• The sum of the probabilities of all the outcomes in a sample space is 1. b) what is the probability of getting an odd number?
c) what is the probability of getting a ”7”?
• If an event E cannot occur (i.e., the event contains no members in the d) what is the probability of getting a number less than 7?
sample space), its probability is 0.
e) what is the sum of the probabilities of all the outcomes?

• If an event E is certain, then the probability of E is 1.

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Complementary Events
Problem – Finding Complements
• The probability that an event doesn't occur is 1 minus the probability that the
event does occur. • Find the complement of each event:
• The complement of E is denoted by E¢ (or E, Ec). a) Selecting a month that has 30 days
b) Selecting a day of the week that begins with the letter W
P(E) = 1 − P(E¢) P(E¢) = 1 − P(E) P(E) + P(E¢) = 1 c) Rolling two dice and getting a number whose sum is 7
d) Selecting a letter of the alphabet (excluding y) that is a vowel.
• Find the complement of getting a “5” when a single die is rolled.
• Find the complement of getting an “odd number” when a single die is rolled.

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Problem – Job Interviews & Clinical Trials Problem – Job Interviews & Clinical Trials
• You had interviews with 3 companies for a job. Find each probability: • You had interviews with 4 companies for a job. Find each probability:
a) Getting 3 “job offers” a) Getting 4 “job offers”
b) Getting 2 “job offers” and 1 ”no offer” b) Exactly 2 “job offers” and 2 ”no offers”
c) Getting 1 “job offer” and 2 ”no offers” c) Getting at least one “job offer”
d) Getting at least one “job offer” d) Getting at least one of each.
e) Getting at least one of each.
• Four patients participated in clinical trials. Find each probability
• Three patients participated in clinical trials. Find each probability a) All patients improved.
a) All patients improved. b) Exactly two patients improved, and two patients did not improve
b) Two patients improved, and one patient did not improve c) At least one patient improved
c) One patient improved, and two patients did not improve d) At least one of each result
d) At least one patient improved
e) At least one of each result

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Problem – Drawing Cards & Rolling a Die Problem – Selecting a Prefecture

• Choose one of the 47 prefectures at random.
What is the probability that it doesn’t begin with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u)?
• A single die is rolled 2 times. Find the probability of getting at least one 6.
Aichi Akita Aomori Chiba Ehime Fukui
• A single die is rolled 3 times. Find the probability of getting at least one 6. Fukuoka Fukushima Gifu Gunma Hiroshima Hokkaido
Hyogo Ibaraki Ishikawa Iwate Kagawa Kagoshima
Kanagawa Kochi Kumamoto Kyoto Mie Miyagi
• A person selects 3 cards from an ordinary deck and replaces each card after it is Miyazaki Nagano Nagasaki Nara Niigata Oita
drawn. Find the probability that the person will get at least one heart. Okayama Okinawa Osaka Saga Saitama Shiga
Shimane Shizuoka Tochigi Tokushima Tokyo Tottori
Toyama Wakayama Yamagata Yamaguchi Yamanashi

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Empirical Probability Problem – Modes of Travel

• The difference between classical and empirical probability is that classical probability • A researcher for the American Automobile Association (AAA) asked 50 people
assumes that certain outcomes are equally likely, while empirical probability relies who plan to travel over the Thanksgiving holiday how they will get to their
on actual experience to determine the likelihood of outcomes. destination. The results can be categorized in a frequency distribution as shown.
• A researcher observes the various frequencies and use these frequencies to Method Frequency
determine the probability of an outcome. Drive 41
Fly 6
• Formula for Empirical Probability:
Train or Bus 3
Frequency for the Class f
P E = = • What is the probability of selecting a person who is driving?
Total Frequencies n
• What is the probability that the person will travel by train or bus over the
• This probability is called empirical probability and is based on observation.
Thanksgiving holiday?

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Problem – Free Throw Percentage

Problem – Free Throw Percentage
• Ryusei Shinoyama is a Japanese basketball player for the Kawasaki Brave • Manu Ginobili was an Argentinian basketball player for the San Antonio Spurs
Thunders. and had a free-throw percentage of 83%.
• In 2017-2018 basketball season, he had a free-throw percentage of 78%. • What is the probability that he will make one of the two free throws?
a) What is the probability that he makes a free throw?
b) What is the probability that he makes 2 free throws?
c) What is the probability that he misses 2 free throws?

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Problem – Free Throw Percentage Problem – Blood Types

• A basketball player has three foul shots (free throws), if he is a 70% free • Human Blood Types: Human blood is grouped into four types. The
throw shooter. What is the probability that he will make two of the three percentages of Americans with each type are listed below.
free throws? O 45% A 40% B 10% AB 5%
• Choose one American at random. Find the probability that this person
a) Has type B blood
b) Has type AB or O blood
c) Does not have type O blood

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Problem – Distribution of Blood Types

Problem – Speed Limits
• In a sample of 50 people, 21 had type O blood, 22 had type A blood, 5 had
type B blood, and 2 had type AB blood. • Speed limits for all 50 states are indicated below.
• Set up a frequency distribution and find the following probabilities for a 60 mph 65 mph 70 mph 75 mph
person selected at random:
1 18 18 13
a) A person has type O blood
• Choose one state at random. Find the probability that its speed limit is
b) A person has type A blood or type B blood
a) 65 miles per hour
c) A person has neither type A nor type O blood
b) 60 or 70 miles per hour
d) A person does not have type AB blood
c) Greater than 65 miles per hour
d) 70 miles per hour or less

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Mutually Exclusive events or Disjoint Events Mutually Exclusive Events or Disjoint Events
• For example, at a university, you might wish to know, for a person selected at
random, the probability that the person is a female or is a freshman. In this case,
• Two events are mutually exclusive events or disjoint events if they there are three possibilities to consider:
cannot occur at the same time (i.e., they have no outcomes in 1) The person is a female.
common or P(E ∩ F) = 0). 2) The person is a freshman.
3) The person is both a female and a freshman.
• Consider another example, If a person is selected at random, what is the
probability that the person is a freshman or a senior? In this case, there are only
two possibilities:
1) The person is a freshman.
2) The person is a senior.

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Problem – Mutually Exclusive Events Problem – Drawing a Card

• Determine whether the two events are mutually exclusive. Explain your answer. • Determine whether the two events, E and F, are mutually exclusive when a single
card is drawn at random from a deck.
a) Randomly selecting a person with type A blood
a) Event E: getting a 9; Event F: getting a diamond
Randomly selecting a person with type O blood.
b) Event E: getting a face card; Event F: getting a 6
b) Rolling a die and getting an odd number
Rolling a die and getting a number less than 3. c) Event E: getting a face card; Event F: getting a heart

c) Randomly selecting a person who is under 21 years of age d) Event E: getting a 7; Event F: getting a king
Randomly selecting a person who is over 30 years of age.
e) Event E: getting a queen; Event F: getting a spade

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The Addition Rules for Probability Problem – Academic Standings

• Addition Rule 1: When two events A and B are mutually exclusive,

• In a math class, 40% of the students are freshmen (F), 30% are
the probability that A or B will occur is
sophomores (So), 20% are juniors (J), 10% are seniors (Se).
• What is the probability that a randomly chosen student is a junior or
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) senior?
• What is the probability that a randomly chosen student is a freshmen
• Addition Rule 2: If A and B are not mutually exclusive, then or sophomore?

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)

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Problem – Academic Majors Problem – Drawing a Card

• A single card is drawn at random from an ordinary deck of cards. Find
• The pie chart shows the distribution
the probability that
according to academic major of a group
of students at TUJ.
a) it is either a 9 or a diamond.
• None of them have double majors. b) it is either a face card or a 6
• If a student is selected at random, find
c) it is either a face card or a heart
the probability that his or her major is:
• Art or Computer Science.
d) it is either a 7 or a king
• Business Studies or Economics
e) it is either a queen or a spade

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Problem – Endangered Species Problem – Research and Development

• In the United States there are 59 different species of mammals that • The corporate research and development centers for three local
are endangered,75 different species of birds that are endangered, companies have the following numbers of employees:
and 68 species of fish that are endangered. U.S. Steel 110
• If one animal is selected at random, find the probability that it is Alcoa 750
either a mammal or a fish
Bayer Material Science 250
• If a research employee is selected at random, find the probability that
the employee is employed by U.S. Steel or Alcoa.

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Problem - Sleep Hours

Problem – Favorite Ice Cream • A recent survey found the following distribution for the
number of hours a person sleeps per night.
• In a survey, 8% of the respondents said that their favorite ice cream • Find these probabilities for a person selected at random:
Sleep Hours
flavor is cookies and cream, and 6% like mint chocolate chip. If a Less than 6 hours 8
a) The person sleeps 8 hours per night.
person is selected at random, find the probability that her or his 6 hours 18
favorite ice cream flavor is either cookies and cream or mint b) The person sleeps fewer than 8 hours per night. 7 hours 27
chocolate chip. 8 hours 35
c) The person sleeps more than 7 hours per night. 9 hours 8
More than 9 hours 4
d) The person sleeps at most 8 hours per night. Total = 100
e) The person sleeps at least 7 hours per night.

f) The person sleeps between 6 and 8 hours per night.

g) The person sleeps less than 6 or more than 8 hours per night.

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Problem - Ages of Employees Problem - Medical Tests on Emergency Patients (1)

• If an employee is selected at random, find
the probability that the employee’s age is:
Distribution of Employee Ages. • The frequency distribution shown here illustrates
The distribution of ages of employees is the number of medical tests conducted on 30
a) Between 31 and 40 as follows: randomly selected emergency patients. # of Tests # of
Performed Patients
b) Under 51 Age Frequency 0 12
• If a patient is selected at random, find these
21-30 1
c) Over 60 probabilities. 1 8
31-40 8
2 2
d) At least 41 41-50 27
a) The patient has had exactly 2 tests done. 3 3
51-60 29
e) At most 60 61-70 24 b) The patient has had at least 2 tests done. 4 or more 5
71-up 11 c) The patient has had at most 3 tests done.
f) Between 31 and 50 d) The patient has had 3 or fewer tests done.
c) Over 30 and under 51 e) The patient has had 1 or 2 tests done.
d) Under 31 or over 60

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Problem - Medical Tests on Emergency Patients (2) Problem – Study Habits

• A survey of college students’ study habits revealed the following:
• The frequency distribution shown here illustrates
the number of medical tests conducted on 30 Listens to music Does not listen to music TOTAL
randomly selected emergency patients. # of Tests # of Male 40 25 65
Performed Patients Female 10 20 30
• If a patient is selected at random, find these 0 11 TOTAL 50 45 95
probabilities: 1 9
2 5 What is the probability that a randomly selected student is:
a) The patient had exactly 3 tests done. 3 4 a) a female AND does not listen to music while studying?
b) The patient had at most 2 tests done. 4 or more 1
c) The patient has 1 or 2 tests done. b) a female OR does not listen to music while studying?
d) The patient had fewer than 3 tests done.
e) The patient had at least 3 tests done. c) a male AND listens to music while studying?

d) a male OR listens to music while studying?

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Problem – Survey of College Students Problem – Survey of College Students

• A survey of 50 college students revealed the following: • A survey of 50 college students revealed the
• 30 enjoy swimming following:
• 35 enjoy hiking • 30 enjoy swimming
• 20 enjoy swimming and hiking • 35 enjoy hiking
• What is the probability that a randomly selected student enjoys swimming or hiking? • 20 enjoy swimming and hiking
• What is the probability that a randomly selected
student:
a) enjoys swimming?
b) enjoys swimming and hiking?
c) enjoys swimming or hiking?
d) enjoys at least one of these activities?
e) enjoys swimming but not hiking?
f) doesn't enjoy hiking?
g) enjoys neither of these activities?

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Problem – Musical Styles Problems – Probability with Two-Way Tables

• A survey of college students revealed the following: • Researchers surveyed 100 TUJ students on which superpower they would most like to have.
• 70% of students listen to rock music • The two-way table displays data for the sample of students who responded to the survey. If a
• 50% of students listen to hip hop music
student will be chosen at random, find the probability that
• 40% of students listen to rock and hip-hop music
1) the student chose to fly as their superpower: P(Fly) = ?
• What is the probability that a randomly student: 2) the student was a female: P(Female) = ?
a) listens to rock music? 3) the student was a female and chose to fly as their superpower: P(Female and Fly) = ?
b) listens to only rock music? 4) the student was a female or chose to fly as their superpower: P(Female or Fly) = ?
c) listens to rock and hip hop? 5) the student chose to fly or read minds as their superpower: P(Fly or Read Minds) = ?
d) listens to hip hop but not rock?
e) listens to rock or hip hop?
f) listens to music in at least one of the musical styles?
g) Listens to music in exactly one of the musical styles?
h) listens to music in exactly two of the musical styles?
i) does not listen to any of the musical styles?

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Problem – Selecting a Medical Staff Person (1) Problem – Selecting a Medical Staff Person (2)
• In a hospital unit there are 8 nurses and 5 physicians; 7 nurses and 3 physicians • The number of staff (doctors, surgeons, and nurses) in a hospital is shown.
are females.
Staff Females Males TOTAL Staff Males Females TOTAL
Nurses 7 1 8 Doctors 20 15 35
Physicians 3 2 5 Surgeons 13 27 40
Nurses 11 14 25
TOTAL 10 3 13 TOTAL 44 56 100
• If a staff person is selected, find the probability that • If a staff person is selected at random, find the probability that
1) the subject is a nurse or a male. 1)the subject is a nurse or a male.
2) the subject is a nurse and a male. 2) the subject is a nurse and a male.
3) the subject is a physician or a female. 3)the subject is a doctor or a surgeon.
4) the subject is a physician and a female. 4) the subject is a male.
5) the subject is not a nurse 5) the subject is not a surgeon.

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Problem – College Degrees Awarded Problem – Licensed Drivers

• The table below represents the college degrees awarded in a recent academic • In a recent year there were the following numbers (in thousands) of
year by gender. licensed drivers in the United States
Bachelor’s Master’s Doctorate TOTAL Male Female TOTAL
Men 570 210 24 804
Age 19 and under 4746 4517 9263
Women 775 300 21 1096
Age 20 1625 1553 3178
TOTAL 1345 510 45 1900
Age 21 1679 1627 3306
• Choose a degree at random. Find the probability that it is TOTAL 8050 7967 15,747
a) A bachelor’s degree • Choose one driver at random. Find the probability that the driver is
b) A doctorate or a degree awarded to a woman a) Male and 19 years or under
c) A doctorate awarded to a woman b) Age 20 or female
d) Not a master’s degree c) At least 20 years old

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Independent Events
Multiplication Rules
• Two events A and B are independent events if the fact that A occurs
• The multiplication rules can be used to find the probability of two does not affect the probability of B occurring.
or more events that occur in sequence.
• For example, if you toss a coin and then roll a die, you can find the
• For example, if you toss a coin and then roll a die, you can find probability of getting a head on the coin and a 4 on the die.
the probability of getting a head on the coin and a 4 on the die.
• These two events are said to be independent since the outcome of
the first event (tossing a coin) does not affect the probability
outcome of the second event (rolling a die).

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Multiplication Rules Problem – Flip a Coin & Roll a Die

• Multiplication Rule 1: When two events are independent, • A coin is flipped, and a die is rolled.
the probability of both occurring is • Find the probability of getting a head on the coin and a 4 on the die.

P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B)

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Sampling With or Without Replacement Problem – Drawing Cards

• Sampling with replacement is defined as a method of sampling in 1) A card is drawn from a deck and replaced; then a second card is drawn.
which each member of the sample is returned to the population Find the probability of getting a king and then a 7.
before the next member is selected.
2) Three cards are drawn from an ordinary deck and replaced.
Find the probability of these events.
• Sampling without replacement is defined as a method of a) Getting 3 jacks
sampling in which the members of the sample are not returned b) Getting an ace, a king, and a queen in order
to the population before subsequent members are selected. c) Getting a club, a spade, and a heart in order
d) Getting 3 clubs

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Problems – Red & Blue Balls Problem – Slot Machines

An urn contains 3 red balls and 2 blue balls. A ball is selected, and its color is • At the entrance to a casino, there are two slot machines. Machine A is
noted. Then, it is replaced. A second ball is selected, and its color is noted. Find
programmed so that in the long run it will produce a winner in 10% of the
the probability of each of these events. plays. Machine B is programmed so that in the long run it will produce a
winner in 15% of the plays.
a) Selecting 1 red and then a blue ball. a) If we play each machine once, what is the probability that we will win on
both plays?
b) Selecting 2 blue balls.
b) If we play each machine once, what is the probability that we will lose on
both plays?
c) Selecting at least one red ball.
c) If we play each machine once, what is the probability that we will win on at
least one play?

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Dependent Events Conditional Probability

• When the outcome or occurrence of the first event affects the outcome or • The probability that event B occurs given that event A occurs is called a
occurrence of the second event in such a way that the probability is changed, the conditional probability. It is denoted P (B | A), which is read “the probability of B
events are said to be dependent events. given A.” We call A the given event.
• Drawing a card from a deck, not replacing it, and then drawing a second card
• Selecting a ball from an urn, not replacing it, and then selecting a second ball • Multiplication Rule 2: When two events are dependent, the probability of both
• Having high grades and getting a scholarship occurring is
• Parking in a no-parking zone and getting a parking ticket
𝑃 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 =𝑃 𝐵 B𝑃 𝐴∖𝐵 =𝑃 𝐴 B𝑃 𝐵∖𝐴

𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
𝑃 𝐴∖𝐵 = =
𝑃(𝐵) 𝑛(𝐵)

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Problem – Drawing Cards Problems – Red & Blue Balls

1) A card is drawn from a deck and not replaced; then a second card is drawn. • An urn contains 3 red balls and 2 blue balls. A ball is selected, and its color is
Find the probability of getting a king and then a 7. noted. It is not replaced. Then, a second ball is selected, and its color is noted.
Find the probability of each of these events.
2) Three cards are drawn from an ordinary deck and not replaced. Find the
probability of these events. a) Selecting 1 red and then a blue ball.
a) Getting 3 jacks
b) Getting an ace, a king, and a queen in order b) Selecting 2 blue balls.
c) Getting a club, a spade, and a heart in order
d) Getting 3 clubs c) Selecting at least one red ball.

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Problems – Probability with Two-Way Tables Problem – Selecting a Medical Staff Person (2)
• Researchers surveyed 100 TUJ students on which superpower they would most like to have.
• The two-way table displays data for the sample of students who responded to the survey.
• The number of staff (doctors, surgeons, and nurses) in a hospital is shown.
Staff Males Females TOTAL
• If a student will be chosen at random, find the probability that
1) the student was a female, given that the student chose to fly as their superpower. That is, P(Female I
Doctors 20 15 35
Fly) = ? Surgeons 13 27 40
2) the student chose to fly, given that the student was a female. That is, P(Fly I Female) =? Nurses 11 14 25
TOTAL 44 56 100
3) the student was a male, given that the student chose to read minds as their superpower. That is,
P(Male I Read Minds) = ? • If a staff person is selected at random, find the probability that
4) the student chose to read minds, given that the student was a male. That is, P(Read Minds I Male) =?
1) the person is a female, given that the person is a surgeon: P(Female I Surgeon) = ?
2) the person is a surgeon, given that the person is a female: P(Surgeon I Female) =?

3) the person is a male, given that the person is a doctor: P(Male I Doctor) = ?
4) the person is a doctor, given that the person is a male: P(Doctor I Male) =?

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Problem – Study Habits Problem – Selecting Puppies

• A survey of college students’ study habits revealed the following:
• In a box we have a bunch of puppies:
Listens to Music Watch TV Play Video Games Total
4 brown bulldogs 2 gray bulldogs
Male 13 26 8 47
Female 26 15 12 53
5 brown poodles 3 gray poodles
Total 39 41 20 100
• If one puppy is selected, what is the probability that the puppy is...
• If a students is randomly selected, find the probability that
a) brown? b) a poodle?

1) the student is a female, given that the student listens to music while studying: P(Female I Music) = ? c) gray or a bulldog? d) brown and a bulldog?
2) the student listens to music while studying, given that the student is a female: P(Music I Female) =?
e) a bulldog, given that it is gray? f) brown, given that it is a poodle?
3) the student is a male, given that the student watches TV while studying: P(Male I Watch TV) = ?
4) the student watches TV while studying, given that the student is a male: P(Watch TV I Male) =?

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Problem – Tossing a Coin and Rolling a Die

Fundamental Counting Principle
• How many possible outcome are
• In a sequence of n events in which the first one has k1 possibilities and there when a coin is tossed and a
the second event has k2 and the third has k3 , and so forth, the total die is rolled?
number of possibilities of the sequence will be
• Solution: Since the coin can land
𝑘F B 𝑘G B 𝑘H … B 𝑘J either heads up or tails up and
the die can land with any one of
six numbers, there are 2 * 6 = 12
possibilities.

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Problem – Required First-Year College Courses Problem – Blood Types

• First-year students at a particular college must take one English class, one • There are four blood types A, B, AB, and O. Blood can also be
class in mathematics, a first-year seminar, and an elective. Rh+ and Rh−. Finally, a blood donor can be classified as either
• There are 3 English classes to choose from, 4 mathematics classes, 6 male or female.
electives, and everyone takes the same first-year seminar. • How many different ways can a donor have his or her blood
• How many different 4-course combinations are possible? labeled?

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Problems
Problem – License Plates • Usernames: Suppose a local area network requires five letters for usernames. Lower-
and uppercase letters are considered the same. How many usernames are possible for
• The first year the state of Pennsylvania issued railroad memorial license the local area network?
plates, the plates had a picture of a steam engine followed by four
digits. • Committee Selection: A club has 10 members. Three members are to be randomly
a) How many railroad memorial plates could be issued if repetitions are selected to serve as chair, vice-chair, and secretary. The first person selected is the
allowed? chair; the second person selected, the vice-chair; and the third, the secretary. How
b) How many railroad memorial plates could be issued if repetitions are many different committee structures are possible?
not allowed?
• Horse Race: In how many ways can horses in a 10-horse race finish first, second, and
third?

• Postal Codes: Canadian postal codes consist of a “letter digit letter digit letter digit”
arrangement. (A)How many codes are possible if repetition is permitted?

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Problem – True/False Quiz Problem – Class Schedule

• Homer Simpson has to take a 5-question true/false quiz, but he hasn't • A student will schedule her classes next semester by choosing one course from
studied.
each of the following categories:
• If he guesses the answer to each question, in how many different ways
is it possible to answer the quiz questions? i. MATH 0701, MATH, 0702, MATH 0823, MATH 0824, MATH, 1021
• How likely is it that he will get a score of 100%? ii. ART 1101, ART 1102, ART 1103
iii. STA 1031, STA 1032, STA 1033
iv. RED 2011, RED 2012, RED 2013, RED 3011
a) How many different 4-course combinations are possible?
b) How many 4-course combinations are possible if she knows that she can't take
ART 1102, and she will take MATH 1021?

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Combination or Permutation Locks?

Factorial Notation
• For any counting number n

n! = n(n – 1)(n – 2) … 1

0! = 1

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Problem
Permutations 1) A club has 10 members. Three members will be selected to serve as a President,
Secretary, and Treasurer. No person will hold more than one position. How many
• A permutation is an arrangement of n objects in a specific order. different outcomes are possible?

2) A business owner wishes to rank the top 3 locations selected from 5 locations for a
• Permutation Rule: The arrangement of n objects in a specific order using r business. How many different ways can she rank them? What if she decides to rank all 5
objects at a time is called a permutation of n objects taking r objects at a locations?
time. It is written as nPr, and the formula is
3) A group of 20 people are going to run a race. The top three runners earn gold, silver,
𝑛! and bronze medals.
𝑛𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃 𝑛, 𝑟 =
𝑛−𝑟 !
4) There are 15 applicants for three jobs: Computer Programmer, Software Tester, and
Systems Engineer.

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Permutation Rule Permutation Rule

• The number of permutations of n objects when r1 objects are identical, r2 objects are • The number of permutations of n objects when r1 objects are identical, r2 objects are
identical, . . . , rp objects are identical, etc., is identical, . . . , rp objects are identical, etc., is

𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑟F ! ∗ 𝑟G ! ∗ … ∗ 𝑟P ! 𝑟F ! ∗ 𝑟G ! ∗ … ∗ 𝑟P !

where r1 + r2 +···+ rp = n where r1 + r2 +···+ rp = n

Example: How many permutations of the letters can be made from the word STATISTICS? Example: How many permutations of the letters can be made from the word STATISTICS?
Solution: There are 3 S’s, 3 T’s, 2 I’s, 1 A and 1 C.

10!
= 50,400
3! 3! 2! 1! 1!

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Combinations Combination
• The difference between a combination and a permutation can be shown using
• A selection of distinct objects without regard to order is called a combination.
the letters A, B, C, and D. The permutations for the letters A, B, C, and D are:
• Combinations are used when the order or arrangement is not important, as in
the selecting process.
• Combination rule: The number of combinations of r objects selected from n
objects is denoted by nCr and is given by the formula:

n! • If duplicates are removed from a list of permutations, what is left is a list of

nCr = C n, r = combinations:
n − r ! ∗ r!

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Combinations Problem – Permutations vs. Combinations (1)

1) Consider the set S = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}.
• How many combinations of 6 objects are there, taken 2 at a time? a) How many different 3-letter code "words" can we form using the letters of set S without
using repeated letters? Examples: abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba are 6 different code "words."
6! 6 B 5 B 4 B 3 B 2 B 1 6 B 5 B 4! b) How many different 3-element subsets does S have?
6C2 = C 6,2 = = = = 15
6 − 2 ! B 2! 4! B 2! 4! B 2!
2) a) The number of ways to choose a chairperson and a treasurer from a list of 6 candidates
b) The number of ways to choose two representatives from from a list of 6 candidates

3) a) How many basketball teams of 5 players can be formed from 15 players with regard to
playing positions?
b) How many basketball teams of 5 players can be formed from 15 players without regard to
playing positions?

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Problem – Permutations vs. Combinations (2) Problem – Committee Selection

4) a) A group of 20 people are going to run a race. The top three runners earn gold, silver, and bronze
medals. 1) A club has 10 members. Three members will be selected to serve as a
b) A group of 20 people are going to run a race. The top three runners advance to the finals.
President, Secretary, and Treasurer. It is possible that one person can hold more
5) a) There are 25 people who work in an office together. Five of these people are selected to attend five than one position. How many different outcomes are possible?
different conferences. The first person selected will go to a conference in Hawaii, the second will go to
New York, the third will go to San Diego, the fourth will go to Atlanta, and the fifth will go to Orlando.
How many ways can they choose this team of 5 people to go to the conferences? 2) A club has 10 members. Three members will be selected to serve as a
There are 25 people who work in an office together. Five of these people are selected to go together to President, Secretary, and Treasurer. No person will hold more than one
the same conference in Orlando. How many ways can they choose this team of 5 people to go to the
conference? position. How many different outcomes are possible?
6) a) There are 15 applicants for three jobs: Computer Programmer, Software Tester, and Systems
Engineer. 3) A club has 10 members. Three members will be selected to serve on the
b) There are 15 applicants for three Computer Programmer positions. advisory board. How many different outcomes are possible?
7) A club has 11 members. a)How many different 2-members committees could be chosen?
b) How many ways could a president and treasurer be chosen?

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Problems – FCP, Permutations, & Combinations (2)

Problems – FCP, Permutations, & Combinations (1)
4) Homer Simson is trying to guess the “combination” to his “combination” lock.
1) Six people are the finalists in a contest. Two prizes will be awarded: the Grand The "combination" is a sequence of 3 numbers, where the numbers range from 1
Prize and the Second Prize. The prizewinners will be randomly selected, and it is to 6 with no repetition.
possible that one person may win both prizes. How many outcomes are possible? a) How many different "combinations" are possible?
b) How many different "combinations" are possible if he knows that the
2) Six people are the finalists in a contest. Two prizes will be awarded: the Grand last number in the combination is either 1 or 6?
Prize and the Second Prize. The prizewinners will be randomly selected, and no
person will win more than one prize. How many outcomes are possible? 5) Homer Simson is trying to guess the “combination” to his “combination” lock.
The "combination" is a sequence of 3 numbers, where the numbers range from 1
3) Homer Simson is going to buy a new motorcycle. The motorcycles come with to 6 with repetition. How many different "combinations" are possible?
six optional accessories. He may choose none of these accessories. How many
outcomes are possible?

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Problems – FCP, Permutations, & Combinations (3) Problems – FCP, Permutations & Combinations (4)
6) Homer Simson is going to order a pizza. The following toppings are available, and 8) a) How many 2-letter words can be formed using the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F?
double toppings are not permitted: b) How many 2-element subsets can be formed using the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F?
mushrooms, spinach, cheese, olives, and anchovies
He may choose any combination of those toppings (this includes the possibility that he 9) a) How many two-digit numbers can be formed using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 if
may choose none of them). How many different topping combinations are possible? repetition is allowed?
b) How many two-digit numbers can be formed using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 if repetition
7) The local pizza shop makes pizzas in three sizes, with two kinds of crust, and offers is not allowed?
nine different toppings.
a) How many different plain (no toppings) pizzas can be ordered? 10) Ten comedians show up for an open-mic night. Due to time constraints, only seven
b. How many different one-topping pizzas can be ordered? can perform that night.
c) After selecting the size and crust of your pizza, in how many ways can you select two a) In how many ways can the promoter choose three comedians to leave out?
toppings? b) In how many ways can the promoter choose the line-up for the seven that will
d) How many different two-topping pizzas can be ordered? (Hint: You have 3 decisions to perform?
make. size, crust, and the two toppings. Use FCP and your answer from part c)

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Problem – Kittens in a Pet Shop

Is it A) P(8,3); B) C(8,3); C) 83; or D) 38?
Problem – Term Paper Selection
• There are 8 kittens in a pet shop:
• i. Three kittens will be randomly selected and donated to a nursing home. How • A student needs to select two topics to write two term papers
many different three-kitten collections are possible? for a course. There are 8 topics in economics and 11 topics in
• ii. One kitten will be chosen for a rabies vaccination, one kitten will be chosen for science. Find the probability that she selects one topic in
a distemper shot, and one kitten will be declawed. In how many different ways economics and one topic is science to complete her
can the choice of kittens be made, if it is possible that more than one of these assignment.
treatments may be given to the same kitten?
• iii. One kitten will be chosen for a rabies vaccination, another kitten will be
chosen for a distemper shot, and a third kitten will be declawed. In how many
different ways can the choice of kittens be made?
• iv. Each kitten will be given either a red, blue, or green ribbon. How many
outcomes are possible?

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Problem – Passwords & License Plates

Problem – Selecting Employees 1) An internet service provider requires its customers to select a password consisting of
four letters followed by three digits. Find how many such passwords are possible in each
• An office employs seven women and five men. Two employees of the following cases.
will be randomly selected for drug screening. What is the a) Repetition of letters and digits is allowed.
b) Repetition of letters and digits is not allowed.
probability that both employees will be men?
2) Suppose license plates in one state have 4 letters followed by 2 digits.
a) How many license plates can be created if repetition of letters and digits is not
allowed.
b) How many license plates can be created if repetition of letters and digits is
allowed.
c) How many license plates can be created if repetition of the digits is allowed,
but repetition of the letters is not allowed?
d) How many license plates can be created if repetition of the letters is allowed,
but repetition of the digits is not allowed?

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Problem – Committee Selection

Problem – Tennis Tournament
• A committee of six people is to be selected from a group of five men and
• There are 8 married couples in a tennis club. If 1 man and 1 seven women.
woman are selected at random to plan the summer a) How many different committees are possible?
tournament, find the probability that they are married to each b) How many different committees are three men and three women?
c) If the committee is chosen randomly, what is the probability that it is half
other.
men and half women?
d) If the committee is chosen randomly, what is the probability that it is all
women?
e) If the committee is chosen randomly, what is the probability that all the men
are chosen?

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Problem – Probability and Counting

1) Find the probability of getting 4 aces when 5 cards are drawn from an
ordinary deck of cards.
2) A box contains 24 integrated circuits, 4 of which are defective. If 4 are sold
at random, find the following probabilities.
a) Exactly 2 are defective.
b) None is defective.
c) All are defective.
d) At least 1 is defective.

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