Appendix:Middle English Swadesh list
This is a Swadesh list of words in Middle English, compared with definitions in English.
Presentation
[edit]- For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
List
[edit]| № | English | Middle English Englisch edit (207) | IPA (key) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | I (1sg) | I | /iː, itʃ, ik/ |
| 2 | you (2sg) | thou | /θuː/ |
| 3 | he, she, it (3sg) | he | /heː/ |
| 4 | we (1pl) | we | /weː/ |
| 5 | you (2pl) | yow | /juː/ |
| 6 | they (3pl) | þei (borrowed from Norse), he (inherited from Old English) | /θɛi̯/, /heː/ |
| 7 | this | þis, þes | /θis, θiːs/, /θeːs/ |
| 8 | that | that | /θat, θaːt/ |
| 9 | here | her | /heːr, hɛr/ |
| 10 | there | there | /θɛːr, θɛr/ |
| 11 | who | who | /ʍɔː, ʍoː/ |
| 12 | what | what, hwat | /ʍat/, /ʍat/ |
| 13 | where | wher | /ʍɛr, ʍɛːr/ |
| 14 | when | whanne, whenne | /ˈʍan(ə)/, /ˈʍɛn(ə)/ |
| 15 | how | how | /huː/ |
| 16 | not | ne, nought | /nɛ/, /nɔu̯xt, nɔt, nat/ |
| 17 | all | all | /al/ |
| 18 | many | mani | /ˈmaniː/ |
| 19 | some | som | /sum/ |
| 20 | few | fewe | /ˈfɛu̯(ə)/ |
| 21 | other | other | /ˈɔðər, ˈoːðər/ |
| 22 | one | oon, oo | /ɔːn/, /ɔː/ |
| 23 | two | two | /twɔː/ |
| 24 | three | thre | /θreː, θriː/ |
| 25 | four | four | /fɔur/ |
| 26 | five | five | /fiːv(ə)/ |
| 27 | big | large, grete | /ˈlaːrdʒ(ə)/, /ɡrɛːt/ |
| 28 | long | long | /lɔnɡ, lanɡ/ |
| 29 | wide | brood, wyd | /brɔːd/, /wiːd/ |
| 30 | thick | thikke | /ˈθik(ə)/ |
| 31 | heavy | hevy | /ˈhɛːviː/ |
| 32 | small | smal | /smal/ |
| 33 | short | schort | /ʃɔrt/ |
| 34 | narrow | narwe | /ˈnarɔu̯, ˈnarwə/ |
| 35 | thin | thinne | /ˈθin(ə)/ |
| 36 | woman | womman, wif | /ˈwuman/, /wiːf/ |
| 37 | man (adult male) | wer, gome, man | /wɛr/, /ˈɡum(ə), ˈɡoːm(ə)/, /man/ |
| 38 | man (human being) | man, persoun | /man/, /pɛrˈsuːn/ |
| 39 | child | child, barn | /tʃiːld/, /bɛrn, barn/ |
| 40 | wife | wif | /wiːf/ |
| 41 | husband | husbonde | /ˈhuzbɔnd(ə), ˈhuzband(ə)/ |
| 42 | mother | moder | /ˈmoːdər, ˈmoːðər/ |
| 43 | father | fader | /ˈfadər, ˈfaðər/ |
| 44 | animal | beeste, animal, der | /ˈbɛːst(ə)/, /aniˈmaːl/, /deːr/ |
| 45 | fish | fisch | /fiʃ/ |
| 46 | bird | fowel, brid | /fuːl, ˈfuːəl/, /brid/ |
| 47 | dog | hound | /huːnd/ |
| 48 | louse | lous | /luːs/ |
| 49 | snake | snake | /ˈsnaːk(ə)/ |
| 50 | worm | worm | /wirm, wurm/ |
| 51 | tree | tre | /treː/ |
| 52 | forest | wald, frith, forest | /wald/, /friθ/, /ˈfɔrɛst/ |
| 53 | stick | stikke | /ˈstik(ə)/ |
| 54 | fruit | fruyt, ovet | /friu̯t/, /ˈɔːvɛt/ |
| 55 | seed | seed | /sɛːd/ |
| 56 | leaf | blad, leef | /blaːd, blad/, /lɛːf/ |
| 57 | root | rote | /roːt/ |
| 58 | bark (of a tree) | rind, bark | /riːnd, rind/, /bark/ |
| 59 | flower | flour, blosme | /fluːr/, /ˈblɔsmə, ˈblɔsəm/ |
| 60 | grass | gras | /ɡras, ɡraːs, ɡɛrs/ |
| 61 | rope | rop, line | /rɔːp/, /liːn(ə)/ |
| 62 | skin | hide, skyn | /hiːd/, /skin/ |
| 63 | meat | flesh | /flɛːʃ, flɛʃ/ |
| 64 | blood | blood | /bloːd/ |
| 65 | bone | bon | /bɔːn/ |
| 66 | fat (noun) | fat | /fat, faːt/ |
| 67 | egg | ey, æȝe, eg | /ɛi̯/, /ɛi̯/, /ɛɡ/ |
| 68 | horn | horn | /hɔrn, hoːrn/ |
| 69 | tail | tayl | /tɛi̯l/ |
| 70 | feather | feþer | /ˈfɛðər, ˈfɛdər/ |
| 71 | hair | her | /hɛːr, heːr/ |
| 72 | head | heed, pate | /hɛːd/, /ˈpaːt(ə), ˈpat(ə)/ |
| 73 | ear | ere | /ˈɛːr(ə)/ |
| 74 | eye | eie | /ˈɛi̯(ə), ˈiː(ə)/ |
| 75 | nose | nose | /ˈnɔːz(ə)/ |
| 76 | mouth | mouth | /muːθ/ |
| 77 | tooth | tothe | /toːθ/ |
| 78 | tongue (organ) | tonge | /ˈtunɡ(ə)/ |
| 79 | fingernail | nayl | /nɛi̯l/ |
| 80 | foot | fot | /foːt/ |
| 81 | leg | schanke, leg | /ˈʃank(ə)/, /lɛɡ/ |
| 82 | knee | kne | /kneː, kniu̯/ |
| 83 | hand | hond | /hɔnd, hɔːnd/ |
| 84 | wing | winge | /ˈwinɡ(ə)/ |
| 85 | belly | bouk, bely | /buːk/, /ˈbɛliː/ |
| 86 | guts | tharm, guttes | /θɛrm, θarm/, /ˈɡutis/ |
| 87 | neck | hals, nekke | /hals/, /ˈnɛk(ə)/ |
| 88 | back | rigge, bak | /ˈridʒ(ə)/, /ˈbak(ə)/ |
| 89 | breast | brest | /ˈbrɛːst, ˈbrøːst/ |
| 90 | heart | herte | /ˈhɛrt(ə)/ |
| 91 | liver | lyvere | /ˈlivər/ |
| 92 | to drink | drinken | /ˈdrinkən/ |
| 93 | to eat | eten | /ˈɛːtən/ |
| 94 | to bite | biten | /ˈbiːtən/ |
| 95 | to suck | souken | /ˈsuːkən/ |
| 96 | to spit | spitten | /ˈspitən/ |
| 97 | to vomit | spewen | /ˈspiu̯ən/ |
| 98 | to blow | blowen | /ˈblɔu̯ən/ |
| 99 | to breathe | ethien, brethen | /ˈɛːθi̯ən/, /ˈbrɛːðən/ |
| 100 | to laugh | laughen | /ˈlau̯xən, ˈlaːxən/ |
| 101 | to see | seen | /ˈseːn/ |
| 102 | to hear | heren | /ˈheːrən, ˈhɛːrən/ |
| 103 | to know | witen, knowen, cunnen | /ˈwitən/, /ˈknɔu̯ən/, /ˈkunən/ |
| 104 | to think | thinken | /ˈθinkən, ˈθɛntʃən/ |
| 105 | to smell | smellen, stynken | /ˈsmɛlən, ˈsmilən/, /ˈstinkən/ |
| 106 | to fear | agasten, dreden | /ˈaɡastən/, /ˈdrɛːdən, ˈdreːdən/ |
| 107 | to sleep | slepen | /ˈsleːpən/ |
| 108 | to live | lyven | /ˈlivən/ |
| 109 | to die | sterven, deyen | /ˈstɛrvən/, /ˈdɛi̯ən, ˈdiːən/ |
| 110 | to kill | quellen, sleyen, killen | /ˈkwɛlən/, /ˈslɛi̯ən/, /ˈkilən/ |
| 111 | to fight | fighten | /ˈfixtən, ˈfɛxtən/ |
| 112 | to hunt | hunten | /ˈhuntən/ |
| 113 | to hit | hitten | /ˈhitən/ |
| 114 | to cut | scheren | /ˈʃɛːrən/ |
| 115 | to split | cleven, parten, sonderen | /ˈkleːvən/, /ˈpartən/, /ˈsund(ə)rən/ |
| 116 | to stab | percen, stingen, prikken | /ˈpeːrsən/, /ˈstinɡən/, /ˈprikən/ |
| 117 | to scratch | scrapen, cracchen | /ˈskratən/, /ˈkratʃən/ |
| 118 | to dig | graven, delven, diggen | /ˈɡraːvən/, /ˈdɛlvən/, /ˈdiɡən/ |
| 119 | to swim | swymmen | /ˈswimən/ |
| 120 | to fly | flien | /ˈfliːən, ˈfleːn/ |
| 121 | to walk | gon, gangen, walken, wenden | /ɡɔːn/, /ˈɡaːnɡən, ˈɡanɡən/, /ˈwalkən/, /ˈwɛndən/ |
| 122 | to come | comen | /ˈkumən/ |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | lien | /ˈliːən/ |
| 124 | to sit | sitten | /ˈsitən/ |
| 125 | to stand | standen | /ˈstɔːndən, ˈstandən/ |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | turnen | /ˈturnən/ |
| 127 | to fall | fallen | /ˈfalən/ |
| 128 | to give | yiven, given (influenced by Old Nnorse) | /ˈjiːvən, ˈjɛːvən/, /ˈgiːvən/ |
| 129 | to hold | holden | /ˈhɔːldən/ |
| 130 | to squeeze | wryngen, compressen | /ˈwrinɡən/, /kɔmˈprɛsən/ |
| 131 | to rub | rubben, rudden | /ˈrubən/, /ˈrudən/ |
| 132 | to wash | wasshen | /ˈwaʃən/ |
| 133 | to wipe | wipen | /ˈwiːpən/ |
| 134 | to pull | drawen, pullen | /ˈdrau̯ən/, /ˈpulən/ |
| 135 | to push | schoven, thresten | /ˈʃuːvən, ˈʃuvən/, /ˈθrɛstən/ |
| 136 | to throw | werpen, throwen | /ˈwɛrpən, ˈwarpən/, /ˈθrɔu̯ən/ |
| 137 | to tie | teyen, binden, fasten | /ˈtɛi̯ən/, /ˈbiːndən/, /ˈfastən, ˈfastnən/ |
| 138 | to sew | sewen | /ˈsɛu̯ən, ˈsɔu̯ən, ˈsɛu̯ən/ |
| 139 | to count | counten, tellen | /ˈkuːntən, ˈkɔntən/, /ˈtɛlən/ |
| 140 | to say | quethen, seien, speken | /ˈkwɛːðən, ˈkwɛːdən/, /ˈsɛi̯ən/, /ˈspɛːkən/ |
| 141 | to sing | singen | /ˈsinɡən/ |
| 142 | to play | pleyen | /ˈplɛi̯ən/ |
| 143 | to float | fleten | /ˈfleːtən/ |
| 144 | to flow | flowen, yeten | /ˈflɔu̯ən/, /ˈjeːtən/ |
| 145 | to freeze | fresen, congelen | /ˈfreːzən/, /kɔnˈdʒɛːlən/ |
| 146 | to swell | swellen, bolnen | /ˈswelən/, /ˈbɔlnən/ |
| 147 | sun | sonne | /ˈsun(ə)/ |
| 148 | moon | mone | /ˈmoːn(ə)/ |
| 149 | star | sterre | /ˈstɛr(ə)/ |
| 150 | water | water | /ˈwatər/ |
| 151 | rain | reyn | /rɛi̯n/ |
| 152 | river | flod, strem, ryver | /floːd/, /strɛːm/, /rivˈɛːr, ˈrivər/ |
| 153 | lake | lake, mere | /ˈlaːk(ə)/, /ˈmeːr(ə)/ |
| 154 | sea | see | /sɛː/ |
| 155 | salt | salt | /salt/ |
| 156 | stone | ston | /stɔːn/ |
| 157 | sand | sand | /saːnd, sand, sɔnd/ |
| 158 | dust | dust | /dust, duːst/ |
| 159 | earth | erthe | /ˈɛrð(ə), ˈɛːrð(ə)/ |
| 160 | cloud | cloud, sky | /kluːd/, /skiː/ |
| 161 | fog | myst | /miːst, mist/ |
| 162 | sky | welken, skew, sky, lift | /ˈwɛlkən/, /skiu̯/, /skiː/, /lift/ |
| 163 | wind | wynd | /wiːnd/ |
| 164 | snow | snow | /snɔu̯/ |
| 165 | ice | is | /iːs/ |
| 166 | smoke | smeke, smoke | /smeːk/, /ˈsmɔːk(ə)/ |
| 167 | fire | fyr | /fiːr/ |
| 168 | ash | asshe | /ˈaʃ(ə)/ |
| 169 | to burn | brennen, bernen, swithen | /ˈbrɛnən/, /ˈbɛrnən/, /ˈswiːðən/ |
| 170 | road | wey, strete, path | /ˈwɛi̯/, /ˈstreːt/, /ˈpaːθ/ |
| 171 | mountain | mountayne, mount, hill | /muːnˈtɛi̯n(ə)/, /muːnt/, /hil/ |
| 172 | red | red | /reːd, rɛːd/ |
| 173 | green | grene | /ˈɡreːn(ə)/ |
| 174 | yellow | yelow | /ˈjɛlɔu̯, ˈjɛlwə/ |
| 175 | white | whit | /ʍiːt/ |
| 176 | black | blak | /blaːk, blak/ |
| 177 | night | nyght | /nixt, niːxt/ |
| 178 | day | day | /dɛi̯/ |
| 179 | year | yeer | /jɛːr/ |
| 180 | warm | warm | /warm, wɛrm/ |
| 181 | cold | cold, chele, chile | /kɔːld/, /tʃɛːld/, /ˈtʃɛːl(ə)/ |
| 182 | full | ful | /ful/ |
| 183 | new | newe | /ˈniu̯(ə)/ |
| 184 | old | old | /ɔːld, aːld, ɛːld/ |
| 185 | good | good | /ɡoːd/ |
| 186 | bad | yvel, badde | /ˈivəl, ˈuvəl, ˈeːvəl, ˈɛvəl/, ˈbad(ə) |
| 187 | rotten | foul, roten | /fuːl/, /ˈrɔtən/ |
| 188 | dirty | unclene, bawdy, hory | /unˈklɛːn(ə)/, /ˈbau̯diː/, /ˈhɔːriː/ |
| 189 | straight | right, streight | /rixt/, /strɛi̯xt/ |
| 190 | round | rounde | /ˈruːnd(ə)/ |
| 191 | sharp (as a knife) | scharp, kene | /ʃarp/, /ˈkeːn(ə)/ |
| 192 | dull (as a knife) | blont, dul | /blunt/, /dul, dɔl/ |
| 193 | smooth | smethe, even, flat | /ˈsmeːð(ə), ˈsmoːð(ə)/, /ˈeːvən/, /flat/ |
| 194 | wet | wet, moiste | /wɛt, wɛːt/, /ˈmɔi̯st(ə)/ |
| 195 | dry | drye, sere | /ˈdriː(ə)/, /sɛːr/ |
| 196 | correct | right, trewe, sothe | /rixt, riːxt/, /ˈtriu̯(ə)/, /soːθ/ |
| 197 | near | nere | /neːr, nøːr, nɛi̯x, niːx/ |
| 198 | far | fer | /fɛr/ |
| 199 | right | right | /rixt, riːxt/ |
| 200 | left | lift | /lift, lɛft/ |
| 201 | at | on, at | /ɔn/, /at/ |
| 202 | in | in | /in, iː/ |
| 203 | with | mid, wiþ | /mid, mið/, /wiθ, wið/ |
| 204 | and | and | /and, an/ |
| 205 | if | if | /if, jif/ |
| 206 | because | for, sithen, as, bicause | /fɔr/, /ˈsiðən/, /as/, /biˈkau̯z/ |
| 207 | name | name | /ˈnaːm(ə)/ |